




If 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Chap*X^_.5 {^pyright No._ 

Slielf, "3 3C? 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
































A MANUAL 


OF 


Ancient History. 


BY 


M 


/e? T 


"HALHEIMER, 


•I 


FORMERLY TEACHER OF HISTORY AND COMPOSITION IN THE PACKER COLLEGIATE 

INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



J 

NEW YOkK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 


l • 














THALHEIMER’S HISTORICAL SERIES. 



Eclectic History of the United States. 

History of England. 

General History. 

Ancient History. 

Eastern Empires (separate). 

History of Greece (separate). 

History of Rome (separate). 

Medieval and Modern received. 

L Jbrary of Congress 
Office of the 

FF» 1 01900 

riegister of Copyrights 

56004 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
WILSON, HINKLE & CO., 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 
Copyright, 19U0, by M. E. Thalheirner. 


e-p 


second copy. 


A 

^ • \ ^ O O 


ms 0 ! 






PREFACE. 


Several causes have lately augmented both the means and the 
motives for a more thorough study of History. Modern criticism, 
no longer accepting primitive traditions, venal eulogiums, partisan 
pamphlets, and highly wrought romances as equal and trustworthy 
evidence, merely because of their age, is teaching us to sift the 
testimony of ancient authors, to ascertain the sources and relative 
value of their information, and to discern those special aims which 
may determine the light in which their works should be viewed. 
The geographical surveys of recent travelers have thrown a flood 
of new light upon ancient events; and, above all, the inscriptions 
discovered and deciphered within half a century, have set before us 
the great actors of old times, speaking in their own persons from 
the walls of palaces and tombs. 

Nor is the new knowledge of little value. If we look familiarly 
into the daily life of our fellow-men thousands of years ago, it is to 
find them toiling at the same problems which perplex us; suffering 
the same conflict of passion and principle; failing, it may be, for 
our warning, or winning for our encouragement; in any case, reach¬ 
ing results which ought to prevent our repeating their mistakes. 
The national questions which fill our newspapers were discussed 
long ago in the.Grove, the Agora, and the Forum; the relative 
advantages of government by the many and the few, were wrought 
out to a demonstration in the states and colonies of Greece; and 
no man whose vote, no woman whose influence, may sway in ever 
so small a degree the destinies of our Kepublic, can afford to be 

ignorant of what has already been so wisely and fully accomplished. 

(iii) 



IV 


PREFACE. 


Present tasks can only be clearly seen and worthily performed in 
the light of long experience; and that liberal acquaintance with 
History which, under a monarchical government, might safely be left 
as an ornament and privilege to the few, is here the duty of the 
many. 

The present work aims merely to afford a brief though accurate 
outline of the results of the labors of Niebuhr, Bunsen, Arnold, 
Mommsen, Kawlinson, and others — results which have never, so 
far as we know, been embraced in any American school-book, 
but which within a few years have greatly increased the treasures 
of historical literature. While it may have been impossible, within 
our limits, to reproduce the full and life-like outlines in which they 
have portrayed the characters of ancient times, we have sought, 
with their aid, at least to ascertain the limits of fact and fable. 
With but few exceptions, and those clearly stated as such, we have 
introduced no narrative which can reasonably be doubted. 

The writer is more confident of justice of aim than of complete¬ 
ness of attainment. No one can so acutely feel the imperfections 
of a work like this, as the one who has labored at every point to 
avoid or to remove them ; to compress the greatest amount of truth 
into the fewest words, and while reducing the scale, to preserve a 
just proportion in the details. To hundreds of former pupils, who 
have never been forgotten in this labor of love, and to the kind 
judgment of fellow-teachers — some of wdiorn w r ell know that effort 
has not been spared, even where ability may have failed — this 
Manual is respectfully submitted. 


Brooklyn, N. Y., April, 1872. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PASS 

Sources of History.9. 

Dispersion of Races; Periods and Divisions of History.10. 

Auxiliary Sciences: Chronology and Geography. ....... 11. 

BOOK I. 

Asiatic and African Nations, from the Dispersion at Babel to the Rise of the Persian 

Empire. 

Part I.—The Asiatic Nations. 

View of the Geography of Asia.13. 

History of the Chaldsean Monarchy.17. 

The Assyrian Monarchy.18. 

The Median Monarchy.. 22. 

The Babylonian Monarchy.24. 

Kingdoms of Asia Minor.29. 

Phoenicia.80. 

Syria.33. 

Judaea. .34. 

(of) Theocracy.. . 35. 

(6) United Monarchy.36. 

(c) The Kingdom of Israel.39. 

(d) The Kingdom of Judah. ........ 42. 

Part II.—The African Nations. 

Geographical Outline of Africa.48. 

History of Egypt.50* 

(a) The Old Empire.51. 

(b) The Shepherd Kings.53. 

(c) The New Empire. .55. 

Religion and Ranks in Egypt.61. 

History of Carthage.66. 

BOOK II. 

The Persian Empire , from the Rise of Cyrus to the Fall of Darius. 

Career of Cyrus."3. 

Reign of Cambyses. 76 * 

Organization of the Empire by Darius 1.79. 

Invasions of Europe under Darius..83. 

The Behistun Inscription.87. 

Invasion of Greece by Xerxes.88. 

(v) 






























VI 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Reign of Artaxerxes I. ( Longimanus) .. .... 92. 

Xerxes II.. ... 94. 

Sogdianus; Darius II.95. 

Artaxerxes II. ( Mnemon )..96. 

Artaxerxes III.; Arses.98. 

Darius III. (Codomannus) .. ... 99. 


BOOK III. 

Grecian Slates and Colonies, from their Earliest Period to the Accession of Alexander 


the Great. 

Geographical Outline of Greece.105, 

History of Greece. ..107. 

First Period. 

Traditional and Fabulous History, from the Earliest Times to the Dorian 

Migrations.107, 

Greek Religion.110, 


Second Period. 

Authentic History, from the Dorian Conquest of the Peloponnesus to the 


Persian Wars.116. 

Sparta.. 118. 

Athens.124. 

Grecian Colonies.130. 

Third Period. 

From the Beginning of the Persian Wars to the Macedonian Supremacy. 134. 

Invasions by Mardonius and Datis.134. 

The Battle of Marathon.135. 

Invasion by Xerxes; Battle of Thermopylae. 138, 139. 

Battle of Salamis, and Retreat of Xerxes.141. 

Battles of Platsea and Mycale. .144. 

Hellenic League, and Greatness of Athens.145. 

The Peloponnesian War.161. 

The Sicilian Expedition.169. 

Decline of Athens..175. 

Battle of iEgos-Potami, and Fall of Athens.179. 

Spartan Supremacy. The Thirty Tyrants.181. 

The Corinthian War.184. 

Peace of Antalcidas.187. 

Theban Supremacy.188. 

Theban Invasions of the Peloponnesus.’ 192-195. 

The Sbcial War.195. 

The Sacred War.196. 

Battle of Chseronea. Supremacy of Philip of Macedon. . 197 . 


BOOK IV. 

History of the Macedonian Empire, and the Kingdoms formed from it, until their 

Conquest by the Romans. 

First Period. 

From the Rise of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander the Great. . 201. 






































CONTENTS. 


Second Period. 

PIGS 

From the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Ipsus. ...... 206. 

Third Period. 

History of the Several Kingdoms into which Alexander’s Empire was 

Divided.204* 

Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidse. 209. 

Egypt, under the Ptolemies..216. 

Macedonia and Greece. 222. 

Thrace; Pergamus. 230. 

Bithynia...231. 

p ontus.’. 232. 

Cappadocia; Armenia. 234. 

Bactria; Partliia. 235. 

Judaea, under Egypt and Syria. 237. 

Under the Maccabees. 238. 

■ Under the Herods. 240. 

BOOK V. 

History of Rome, from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire. 
Geographical Sketch of Italy. 245. 

I. History of the Roman Kingdom. 248. 

Religion of Rome. 255. 

II. History of the Roman Republic.. 260. 

First Period. Growth of the Constitution. 260. 

Laws of the Twelve Tables. 265. 

Capture of Rome by the Gauls. 269. 

Second Period. Wars for the Possession of Italy. 274. 

First Samnite War.. 274. 

Latin War, and Battle of Vesuvius. 275. 

Second Samnite War. 276. 

Third War with Samnites and the Italian League.. 278. 

War with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. 279. 

Colonies and Roads. 282. 

Third Period. Foreign Wars. 283. 

First Punic War. 284. 

War with the Gauls. 286. 

Second Punic Wax-, and Invasion of Italy by Hannibal. 287. 

Battles of the Trebia, Lake Thrasymene, Cannee. 288, 289. 

Wai’s with Antiochus the Great; with Spain, Liguria, Corsica, Sardinia, 

and Macedon. 293. 

Third Punic Wax’. 294. 

Subjugation of the Spanish Peninsula.. 295. 

Fourth Period. Internal Commotions and Civil Wars. 296. 

Reforms Proposed by the Gracchi. 297. 

Jugurthine Wars, and Rise of Mai’ius. 299. 

Defeat of the Teutones and Cimbri. 302. 

Servile Wars in Sicily. 303. 




































Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


MSt 

The Social War. 304. 

Exile and Seventh Consulship of Marius. 305. 

Dictatorship of Sulla. 306. 

Sertorius in Spain. 307. 

War of the Gladiators. 308. 

Extraordinary Power of Pompey.311. 

Conspiracy of Catiline.312. 

Triumvirate of Pompey, Csesar, and Crassus.314. 

Conquests of Caesar in Gaul, Britain, and Germany.315. 

Civil War; Pompey defeated at Pliarsalia.319. 

Caesar Victor at Thapsus, and Master of Rome.321. 

Murder of Caesar in the Senate-house. 323. 

Triumvirate of Antony, Caesar Octavianus, and Lepidus. 324. 

Antony defeated at Actium; Octavianus becomes Augustus. 325. 

III. History of the Roman Empire. 326. 


First Period. 

Reigns of Augustus, 326; Tiberius, 328; Caligula, Claudius, 330; Nero, 331; 
Galba, Otlio, Vitellius, 333; Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, 334; Nerva, 
Trajan, 335; Hadrian, T. Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius Antoninus, 336; 

Com modus, 337. 

Second Period. 

Reigns of Pertinax, Didius Julianus, 338; Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, 
Elagabalus, 339; Alexander Severus, 340; Maximin, the Gordians, 
Pupienus and Balbinus, Gordian the Younger, Philip, Decius, 341; 
Gallus, iEmilian, Valerian, Gallienus and the “Thirty Tyrants,” 342; 
Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, 343; Probus, Cams, Numerian, Carinus, 344. 

Third Period. 

Reigns of Diocletian and Maximian with two Ceesars, 345; of Constantine, 
Maximian, and Maxentius in the West —Galerius, Maximin, and 
Licinius in the East, 348; of Constantine alone, and the Reorganiza¬ 
tion of the Empire, 349; of Constantine II., Constans, and Constan- 
tius II., 350; of Julian, Jovian, and Valentinian I., 352; of Valens, 353; 
of Gratian, Valentinian II., and Theodosius I., 354. 

, Fourth Period. 

Final Separation of the Eastern and Western Empires. 356. 

Reigns, in the West, of Honorius, 356; of Valentinian III., 358; of Maximus, 

359; of Avitus, Marjorian, Libius Severus, Anthemius, Olybrius, Glyoe- 
rius, and Julius Nepos, 360; of Romulus Augustulus, 361. 


MAPS. 

I. The World as known to the Assyrians.facing 17. 

II. * E.mpire of the Persians.“ 97 . 

III. Ancient Greece and the Aegean Sea.“ 113 . 

IV. Empire of the Macedonians.“ 209. 

V. Italy, with the Eleven Regions of Augustus.“ 257. 

VI. The Roman Empire.“ 305 . 























INTRODUCTION. 


SOURCES AND DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

1. The former inhabitants of our world are known to us by three kinds 
of evidence: (1) Written Records; (2) Architectural Monuments; (3) Frag¬ 
mentary Remains. 

2. Of these the first alone can be considered as true sources of History, 
though the latter afford its most interesting and valuable illustrations. Sev¬ 
eral races of men have disappeared from the globe, leaving no records in¬ 
scribed either upon stone or parchment. Their existence and character can 
only be inferred from fragments of their weapons, ornaments, and household 
utensils found in their tombs or among the ruins of their habitations. Such 
were the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and the unknown authors of the 
shell-mounds of Denmark and India, the tumuli of Britain, and the earth¬ 
works of the Mississippi Valley. 

3. The magnificent temples and palaces of Egypt, Assyria, and India 
have only afforded materials of history since the patient diligence of ori¬ 
ental scholars has succeeded in deciphering the inscriptions which they 
bear. Within a few years they have added immeasurably to our knowl¬ 
edge of primeval times, and explained in a wonderful manner the brief 
allusions of the Bible. 

4. The oldest existing books are the Hebrew Scriptures, which alone* 
of ancient writings describe the preparation of the earth for the abode of 
man; his creation and primeval innocence; the entrance of Sin into the 
world, and the promise of Redemption; the first probation, and the almost 
total destruction of the human race by a flood; the vain attempt of Noah’s 
descendants to avert similar punishment in future by building a “city and 


* Scattered traditions of the same events have been found in several nations. 
The most remarkable were in the writings of Berosus (see note, p. 18), who, to 
his account of the Creation, added that the monstrous living creatures which 
had floated in the darkness of the primeval ocean perished at the appearance 
of light. These must have been the pre-adamite animals which Geology has 
macie known to us only within the present century. Berosus describes a deluge, 
from which only righteous men were saved. 


(9) 




10 


IN TROD UCTION . 


a tower whose top may reach unto heaven,” and their consequent disper¬ 
sion. The Bible lays the foundation of all subsequent history by sketching 
the division ol the human race into its three great families, and describing 
their earliest migrations 

5. The family of Shem, which was appointed to guard the true primeval 
faith, remained near the original home in south-western Asia. Of the de¬ 
scendants of Ham, a part settled in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, 
and built the great cities of Nineveh and Babylon; while the rest spread 
along the eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean, and became 
the founders of the Egyptian Empire. The children of Japheth consti¬ 
tuted the Indo-Germanic, or Aryan race, which was divided into two great 
branches. One, moving eastward, settled the table-lands of Iran and the 
fertile valleys of northern India; the other, traveling westward along the 
Euxine and Propontis, occupied the islands of the iEgean Sea, and the pen¬ 
insulas of Greece and Italy. By successive migrations they overspread all 
Europe. 

(>. Our First Book treats of the Hamitic and Semitic empires. With the 
rise of the Medo-Persian monarchy, the Aryan race came upon the scene,, 
and it has ever since occupied the largest place in History. The Hamitic 
nations were distinguished by their material grandeur, as exemplified by 
the enormous masses of stone employed in their architecture, and even in 
their sculpture; the Semitic, by their religious enthusiasm; the Indo-Ger¬ 
manic, by their intellectual activity, as exhibited in the highest forms of 
art, literature, and political organization. 

7. History is divided into three great portions or periods: Ancient, Me¬ 
diaeval, and Modern. 

Ancient History narrates the succession of empires which ruled Asia, 
Africa, and Europe, until the Roman dominion in Italy was overthrown by 
northern barbarians, A. D. 476. 

Mediaeval History begins with the establishment of a German kingdom 
in Gaul, and ends with the close of the fifteenth century, when the revival 
of ancient learning, the multiplication of printed books, and the expansion 
of ideas by the discovery of a new continent, occasioned great mental ac¬ 
tivity, and led to the Modern Era, in which we live. 

8. Ancient History may be divided into five books: 

I. History of the Asiatic and African nations, from the earliest times to 
the foundation of the Persian Empire, B. G. 558. 

II. History of the Persian Empire, from the accession of Cyrus the 
Great to the death of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 558—330. 

III. History of the States and Colonies of Greece, from their earliest 
period to the accession of Alexander of Macedon, B. C. 336. 

IV. History of the Macedonian Empire, and the kingdoms formed from 
it, until their conquest bv the Romans. 


IN TROD JJCT10N. 


11 


V. History of Rome from its foundation to the fall of the Western Em¬ 
pire, A. D. 476. 

9 . In the study of events, the two circumstances of time and place con¬ 
stantly demand our attention. Accordingly, Chronology and Geog¬ 
raphy have been called the two eyes of History. It is only by the use of 
both that we can gain a complete and life-like impression of events. 

10 . For the want of the former, a large portion of the life of man upon 
the globe can be but imperfectly known. There is no detailed record of 
the ages that preceded the Deluge and Dispersion; and even after those 
great crises, long periods are covered only by vague traditions. We have 
no complete chronology for the Hebrews before the building of Solomon’s 
Temple, B. C. 1004; for the Babylonians before Nabonassar, B. C. 748; or 
for the Greeks before the first Olympiad, B. C. 776. When its system of 
computation was settled, each nation selected its own era from which to 
date events; but we reduce all to our common reckoning of time before 
and after the Birth of Christ. 

11 . The study of Geography is more intimately connected with that 
of History than may at first appear. The growth and character of nations 
are greatly influenced, if not determined, by soil and climate, the position 
of mountains, and the course of rivers. 

Note.— It is recommended to Teachers that the Geographical sections which 
precede Parts 1 and 2 of Book I, Book III, and Book V, be read aloud in the class, 
each pupil having his or her eye upon the map, and pronouncing the name of 
each locality mentioned, only when it is found. By this means, the names will 
become familiar, and questions upon the peculiarities of each country can he 
afterward combined with the lessons. Many details necessarily omitted from 
maps I., II., IV., and VI., will be found on maps III. and V. 

Pupils are strongly urged to study History with the map before them; if pos¬ 
sible, even a larger and fuller map than can be given in this book. Any little 
effort which this may cost, will be more than repaid in the ease with which the 
lesson will be remembered, when the places where events have occurred are 
clearly in the mind. 



BOOK I. 


Nations of Asia and Africa from the Dispersion at Babel 
to the Foundation of the Persian Empire. 

B. C. (about) 2700-558. 


PART I. ASIATIC RATIONS. 

VIEW OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 

12 . Asia, the largest division of the Eastern Hemisphere, possesses the 
greatest variety of soil, climate, and products. Its central and principal 
portion is a vast table-land, surrounded by the highest mountain chains in 
the world, on whose northern, eastern, and southern inclinations great 
rivers have their rise. Of these, the best known to the ancients were the 
Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus, Etymai/der, Arius, Oxus, JaxaPtes, and 
Jordan. 

13 . Northern Asia, north of the great table-land and the Altai range, 
is a low, grassy plain, destitute of trees, and unproductive, but intersected 
by many rivers abounding in fish. It was known to the Greeks under the 
general name of Scythia. From the most ancient times to the present, it 
has been inhabited by wandering tribes, who subsisted mainly upon the 
milk and flesh of their animals. 

14 . Central Asia, lying between the Altai on the north, and the 
Elburz, Hindu Kush, and Himalaya Mountains on the south, has little 
connection with ancient History. Three countries in its western part are 
of some importance: Chom/mia, between the Caspian and the Sea of 
Aral; Sogdia'na to the east, and Bad'tria to the south of that province. 
The modern SanFarcand is Maracan / da, the ancient capital of Sogdiana. 
Bactra, now Balkh, was probably the first great city of the Aryan race. 

15 . Southern Asia may be divided into eastern and western sections 
by the Indus River. The eastern portion was scarcely known to the 

(13) 




14 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Persians, Greeks, and Romans; and materials are yet lacking for its 
authentic history: the western, on the contrary, was the scene of the 
earliest and most important events. 

10 . South-western Asia may be considered in three portions: ( 1 ) 
Asia Minor, or the peninsula of Anato'lia; (2) The table-land eastward to 
the Indus, including the mountains of Arme / nia; (3) The lowland south of 
this plateau, extending from the base of the mountains to the Erythraean 
Sea. 

17. Asia Minor, in the earliest period, contained the following countries: 
Phry'gia and Cappadocia, on its central table-land, divided from each other 
by the river Ida / lys; Bithy'nia and Paphlago'nia on the coast ot the 
Euxine; Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on that of the ^Ege'an; Lycia, Pam- 
phyPia, and Cilic'ia, on the borders of the Mediterranean. It possessed 
many important islands: Proconne / sus, in the Propon'tis; Ten'edos, Les / bos, 
■Chi'os, Sa'mos, and Rhodes, in the JEgean; and Cyprus, in the Levant'. 

18 . Phrygia was a grazing country, celebrated from the earliest times 
for its breed of sheep, whose fleece was of wonderful fineness, and black 
as the plumage of the raven. The Ango'ra goat and the rabbit of the 
same region were likewise famed for the fineness of their hair. Cappadocia 
was inhabited by the White Syrians, so called because they were of fairer 
complexion than those of the south. The richest portion of Asia Minor 
lay upon the coast of the iEgean; and of the three provinces, Lydia , the 
central, was most distinguished for wealth, elegance, and luxury. The 
Lydians were the first who coined money. The River Pacto'lus brought 
from the recesses of Mt. Tmolus a rich supply of gold, which was washed 
from its sands in the streets of Sardis, the capital. 

19 . The Grecian colonies, which, at a later period, covered the coasts 
of Asia Minor, will be found described in Book III.* This peninsula was 
the field of many wars between the nations of Europe and Asia. From 
its intermediate position, it was always the prize of the conqueror; and 
after the earliest period of history, it was never occupied by any kingdom 
of great extent or of long duration. 

20 . The highlands of south-western Asia contained seventeen countries, 
of which only the most important will here be named. Arme'nia has been 
called the Switzerland of Western Asia. Its highest mountain is AParat, 
17,000 feet above the sea-level. From this elevated region the Tigris and 
Euphrates take their course to the Persian Gulf; the Halys to the 
Euxine; the Arax'es and the Cyrus to the Caspian Sea. Colchis lay east 
of the Euxine, upon one of the great highways of ancient traffic. It was 
celebrated, in very early times, for its trade in linen. Media was a mount¬ 
ainous region, extending from the Araxes to the Caspian Gates. Persia 


* See Book III, 35-37, 84-86. 



THE GEOGRAPHY OE ASIA. 


15 


lay between Media and the Persian Gulf. Its southern portion is a sandy 
plain, rendered almost desert in summer by a hot, pestilential wind from 
the Steppes of Kerman. Farther from the sea, the country rises into 
terraces, covered with rich and well-watered pastures, and abounding in 
pleasant fruits. The climate of this region is delightful; but it soon 
changes, toward the north, into that of a sterile mountain tract, chilled by 
snows, which cover the peaks even in summer, and affording only a scanty 
pasturage to flocks of sheep. 

21. The lowland plain of south-western Asia comprised Syr'ia, Arabia, 
Assyria, Susia / na, and Babylonia. Syria occupied the whole eastern coast 
of the Mediterranean, and consisted of three distinct parts: (1) Syria 
Proper had for its chief river the OroiPtes, which flowed between the 
parallel mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. (2) Phoenicia 
comprised the narrow strip of coast between Lebanon and the sea. (3) 
Palestine, south of Phoenicia, had for its river the Jordan, and for its 
principal mountains Hermon and Carmel. Syria becomes less fertile as it 
recedes from the mountains, and merges at last into a desert, with no traces 
of cities or of settled habitations. Yet even this sandy waste is varied by a 
few fertile spots. The site of Palmy / ra, “ Queen of the Desert,” may be 
discerned even now in her magnificent ruins. In more prosperous days 
she afforded entertainment to caravans on their way from India to the 
coast of the Mediterranean. 

22. Arabia is a vast extent of country south and east of Syria, lying 
between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Though more than one-fourth 
the size of Europe, it was of little importance in ancient times; for its 
usually rocky or sandy soil sustained few inhabitants, and afforded little 
material for commerce. 

Assyria Proper lay east of the Tigris and west of the Median Mountains. 
The great empire which bore that name varied in extent under different 
monarchs, and the name of Assyria is often applied to all the territory 
between the Zagros Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. The region 
between the two great rivers and north of Babylonia was called by the 
Greeks Mesopotamia. It differed from the more southerly province in being 
richly wooded: the forests near the Euphrates more than once supplied 
materials for a fleet to Roman emperors in later times. 

Susiana lay along the Tigris, south-east of Assyria. It was crossed by 
numerous rivers, and was very rich in grain. Its only important city was 
Susa, its capital. 

23. Babylonia comprised the great alluvial plain between the lower 
waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, and sometimes included the country 
south of the latter river, on the borders of Arabia Deserta, which is 
better known as ChaldcPa. When the snows melt upon the mountains of 
Armenia, both rivers, but especially the Euphrates, become suddenly 


lb* 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


swollen, and tend to overflow their banks. In fighting against this 
aggression of Nature, the Babylonians early developed that energy of mind 
which made their country the first abode of Eastern civilization. The 
net-work of canals which covered the country served the three purposes 
of internal traffic, defense, and irrigation. Immense lakes were dug or 
enlarged for the preservation of surplus waters; and the earth thrown 
out of these excavations formed dykes along the banks of the rivers. 
The fertile plain, so thoroughly watered, produced enormous quanti¬ 
ties of grain, the farmer being rewarded with never less than two hun¬ 
dred fold the seed sown, and in favorable seasons, with three hundred 
fold. We shall not be surprised, therefore, to learn that Babylonia was, 
from the earliest times, the seat of populous cities, crowded with the 
products of human industry, and that its people long constituted the 
leading state of Western Asia. Though the plain of Babylonia afforded 
neither wood nor stone for building, Nature had provided for human 
habitations a supply of excellent clay for brick, and wells of bitumen 
which served for mortar. (Gen. xi: 3.) 

24. South-eastern Asia. India extends from the Indus eastward to 
the boundaries of China, being bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean, 
and on the north by the Himalayas, from whose snowy heights many great 
rivers descend to fertilize the plains. The richness of the soil fits it for 
the abode of a swarming population; and roads, temples, and other 
structures, dating from a very remote period, attest the skill and industry 
of the people. Herod / otus * names them as the greatest and wealthiest of 
nations, though he had not seen them. It was only in the fifth century 
before Christ that the Indian peninsulas became distinctly known to the 
Greeks; and it was two centuries later, in the invasion by Alexander, that 
the remarkable features of the country were first described to the Western 
world by eye-witnesses. “Wool-bearing trees” were mentioned as a most 
peculiar production; for cotton, as well as sugar, was first produced in 
India. The pearl fisheries, however, of the eastern coast, the diamonds of 
Golcoi/da, the rubies of Mysore 7 , as well as the abundant gold of the river¬ 
beds, the aromatic woods of the forests, and the fine fabrics of cotton, silk, 
and wool, for which India was already famous,! drew the merchants of 
Phoenicia at a much earlier period to the banks of the Indus. 

25. China was even less known than India to the inhabitants of the 
ancient world. The province of Se 7 rica, which formed the north-western 

* Herodotus, the Father of History, was a Greek of Halicarnassus, a Doric city 
in Caria, and was born B. C. 484. He collected the materials for his works by exten¬ 
sive travels and laborious research. 

f Our word “shawl” belongs to the Sanskrit, the oldest known language of 
India, showing that “India shawls” have been objects of luxury and commerce 
from the earliest ages. 




Am 




iucxuu. 


LUOTii/a J1 o 


Ra -dis 
&7T .plies us 


"cily 

Syracuse 


.ntioch 


Hhodes 


Berytu^£ 
Sidon/>' ^ 
a? 

M* cx y- 




BapBi 


AJexaudr 


elusium / o Petra 


Blalh. <&> 


31 em 


Ajuqoi 


Heracleojiolis 


ipUinopolis 


SucBe 


Abuncis 


yiaviaba 


Adane 


Mastitae 


MAP OF 

THE WORLD 

AS KNOW TO THE 

ASSYRIANS. 










































































CHALDJEAN MONARCHY. 


17 


corner of what is now the Chinese Empire, was visited, however, by 
Babylonian and Phoenician merchants, for its most peculiar product, silk. 
The extreme reserve of the Chinese in their dealings with foreigners, may 
already be observed in the account given by Herodotus of their trade with 
the neighboring Scythians. The Sericans deposited their bales of wool or 
silk in a solitary building called the Stone Tower. The merchants then 
approached, deposited beside the goods a sum which they were willing to 
pay, and retired out of sight. The Sericans returned, and, if satisfied with 
the bargain, took away the money, leaving the goods; but if they consid¬ 
ered the payment insufficient, they took away the goods and left the money. 
The Chinese have always been remarkable for their patient and thorough 
tillage of the soil. Chin-nong, their fourth emperor, invented the plow; 
and for thousands of years custom required each monarch, among the cer¬ 
emonies of his coronation, to guide a plow around a field, thus paying due 
honor to agriculture, as the art most essential to the civilization, or, rather, 
to the very existence of a state. 


CHALDEE AN MONAKCHY. 

26. After the dispersion of other descendants of Noah from Babel,* 
Nimrod, grandson of Ham, remained near the scene of their discomfiture, 
and established a kingdom south of the Euphrates, at the head of the 
Persian Gulf. The unfinished tower was converted into a temple, other 
buildings sprang from the clay of the plain, and thus Nimrod became the 
founder of Babylon, though its grandeur and magnificent adornments date 
from a later period. Nimrod owed his supremacy to the personal strength 
and prowess which distinguished him as a “ mighty hunter before the 
Lord.” In the early years after the Flood, it is probable that wild beasts 
multiplied so as to threaten the extinction of the human race, and the 
chief of men in the gratitude and allegiance of his fellows was he who 
reduced their numbers. Nimrod founded not only Babylon, but E / rech, or 
O'rchoe, Ac'cad, and CaPneh. The Chaldseans continued to be notable 
builders; and vast structures of brick cemented with bitumen, each brick 
bearing the monarch’s or the architect’s name, still attest, though in ruins, 
their enterprise and skill. They manufactured, also, delicate fabrics of 
wool, and possessed the arts of working in metals and engraving on gems 
in very high perfection. Astronomy began to be studied in very early 
times, and the observations were carefully recorded. The name of Chal- 
daean became equivalent to that of seer or philosopher. 

27. The names of fifteen or sixteen kings have been deciphered upon 


* See p. 10, and Gen. xi: 1-9. 
A. II.—2. 




18 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the earliest monuments of the country, but we possess no records of their 
reigns. It is sufficient to remember the dynasties, or royal families, which, 
according to Ben/sus, * ruled in Chaldaea from about two thousand years 
before Christ to the beginning of connected chronology. 

1. A Chaldsean Dynasty, from about 2000 to 1543 B. C. The only 
known kings are Nimrod and Chedorlao'mer. 

2. An Arabian Dynasty, from about 1543 to 1298 B. C. 

3. A Dynasty of forty-five kings, probably Assyrian, from 1298 to 
772 B. C. 

4. The Reign of Pul, from 772 to 747 B. C. 

During the first and last of these periods, the country was flourishing 
and free; during the second, it seems to have been subject to its neighbors 
in the south-west; and, during the third, it was absorbed into the great 
Assyrian Empire, as a tributary kingdom, if not merely as a province. 


ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 


28. At a very early period a kingdom was established upon the Tigris, 
which expanded later into a vast empire. Of its earliest records only the 
names of three or four kings remain to us; but the quadrangular mounds 
which cover the sites of cities and palaces, and the rude sculptures found by 
excavation upon their walls, show the industry of a large and luxurious 
population. The history of Assyria may be divided into three periods: 

I. From unknown commencement of the monarchy to the Conquest 
of Babylon, about 1250 B. C. 

II. From Conquest of Babylon to Accession of Tiglath-pileser II, 
745 B. C. 

III. From Accession of Tiglath-pileser to Fall of Nineveh, 625 B. C. 
One king of the First Period, Shalmaneser I, is known to have made 

B. C. 1270 . war amon S the Arm enian Mountains, and to have established 
cities in the conquered territory. 


29. Second Period, B. C. 1250-745. About the middle of the thir¬ 
teenth century B. C., Tiglathi-nin conquered Babylon. A hundred and 
B c 1130 twenty years later, a still greater monarch, Tiglath-pileser I, 
extended his conquests eastward into the Persian mountains, 
and westward to the borders of Syria. After the warlike reign of his son, 


* Berosus, a learned Babylonian, wrote a history of his own and neighboring 
countries in three books, which are unfortunately lost. He drew his information 
from records kept in the temple of Belus, from popular traditions, and in part, 
probably, from the Jewish Scriptures. Fragments have been preserved to us by 
later writers. He lived from the reign of Alexander, 356-323 B. C., to that of Anti¬ 
och us II, 261-246 B. C. 




ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 


19 


B. C. 1100-909. 


B.C. 886-858. 


B. C. 858-823 


Assyria was probably weakened and depressed for two hundred years, since 
no records have been found. From the year 909 B. C., the 
chronology becomes exact, and the materials for history 
abundant. As'shur-nazir-pal I carried on wars in Persia, Babylonia, 
Armenia, and Syria, and captured the principal Phoenician 
towns. He built a great palace at Ca'lah, which he made 
his capital. His son, Shalmane'ser II, continued his father’s conquests, 
and made war in Lower Syria against Benlia'dad, Haza'el, 
and A / hab. 

30 . B. C. 810-781. Pva-lush (Hu-likh-khus IV) extended his empire 
both eastward and westward in twenty-six campaigns. He married SanF- 
mura / mit (SemPramis), heiress of Babylonia, and exercised, either in her 
right or by conquest, royal authority over that country. No name is more 
celebrated in Oriental history than that of Semiramis; but it is probable 
that most of the wonderful works ascribed to her are purely fabulous. The 
importance of the real Sammuramit, who is the only princess mentioned 
in Assyrian annals, perhaps gave rise to fanciful legends concerning a queen 
who, ruling in her own right, conquered Egypt and part of Ethiopia, and 
invaded India with an army of more than a million of men. This mythical 
heroine ended her career by flying away in the form of a dove. It became 
customary to ascribe all buildings and other public works whose origin was 
unknown, to Semiramis; the date of her reign was fixed at about 2200 B. 
C.; and she was said to have been the wife of Ninus, an equally mythical 
person, the reputed founder of Nineveh. 

31 . Asshur-danin-il II was less warlike than his ancestors. The time 
of his reign is ascertained by an eclipse of the sun, which 
the inscriptions place in his ninth year, and which astrono¬ 
mers know to have occurred June 15, 763 B. C. After Asshur-likh-khus, 
the following king, the dynasty was ended with a revolution. 

Nabonas'sar, of Babylon, not only made himself independent, 
but gained a brief supremacy over Assyria. The Assyrians, during the 
Second Period, made great advances in literature and arts. The annals 
of each reign were either cut in stone or impressed upon a duplicate series 
of bricks, to guard against destruction either by fire or water. If fire 
destroyed the burnt bricks, it would only harden the dried ; and if the 
latter were dissolved by water, the former would remain uninjured. En¬ 
graved columns were erected in all the countries under Assyrian rule. 

82. Third Period, B. C. 745-625. Tiglath-pileser II was the founder 
of the New or Lower Assyrian Empire, which he established by active and 
successful warfare. He conquered Damascus, Samaria, Tyre, b. c. 715-727. 
the Philistines, and the Arabians of the Sinaitic peninsula; 
carried away captives from the eastern and northern tribes of Israel, and 
took tribute from the king of Judah. (2 Kings xv: 29; xvi: 7-9.) 


B.C. 771-753. 


B. C. 753-745. 


20 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Shalmaneser IV conquered Phoenicia, but was defeated in a naval assault 
upon Tyre. His successor, Sargon, took Samaria, which had revolted, 
and carried its people captive to his newly conquered provinces of 
Media and Gauzanitis. He filled their places with Babylonians, whose 
king, Merodach-baladan, he had captured, B. C. 709. An interesting 
inscription of Sargon relates his reception of tribute from seven kings 
of Cyprus, “ who have fixed their abode in the middle of the sea of 

the setting sun.” The city and palace of Khor'sabad' were entirely 

the work of Sargon. The palace was covered with sculptures within 
and without; it was ornamented with enameled bricks, arranged in 
elegant and tasteful patterns, and was approached by noble flights of 
steps through splendid porticos. In this “ palace of incomparable splen¬ 
dor, which he had built for the abode of his royalty,” are found Sar- 
gon’s own descriptions of the glories of his reign. “I imposed tribute 
on Pharaoh, of Egypt; on Tsamsi, Queen of Arabia; on Ithamar, the 

Sabsean, in gold, spices, horses, and camels.” Among the spoils of the 

Babylonian king, he enumerates his golden tiara, scepter, throne and 
parasol, and silver chariot. In the old age of Sargon, Merodach-baladan 
recovered his throne, and the Assyrian king was murdered in a con¬ 
spiracy. 

33 . His son, Sennach'erib, reestablished Assyrian power at the eastern 

and western extremities of his empire. He defeated Mero- 

B. C. 705-(>80. 

dach-baladan, and placed first an Assyrian viceroy, and 
afterward his own son, Assarana / dius, upon the Babylonian throne. He 
quelled a revolt of the Phoenician cities, and extorted tribute from most 
of the kings in Syria. He gained a great battle at EPtekeh, in Palestine, 
against the kings of Egypt and Ethiopia, and captured all the “fenced 
cities of Judah.” (2 Kings xviii: 13.) In a second expedition against 
Palestine and Egypt, 185,000 of his soldiers were destroyed in a single 
night, near Pelusium, as a judgment for his impious boasting. (2 Kings 
xix: 35, 36.) On his return to Nineveh, two of his sons conspired against 
him and slew him, and E'sarhad'don, another son, obtained the crown. 
His reign (B. C. 680-667) was signalized by many conquests. He defeated 
TiPhakeh, king of Egypt, and broke up his kingdom into petty states. 
He completed the colonization of Samaria with people from Babylonia,. 
Susiana, and Persia. His royal residence was alternately at Nineveh and 
Babylon. 

34 . Under As / shur-ba / ni-pal, son of Esarhaddon, Assyria attained her 
B c 667-647 g reates t power and glory. He reconquered Egypt, which 

had rallied under Tirhakeli, overran Asia Minor, and im¬ 
posed a tribute upon Gyges, king of Lydia. He subdued most of Armenia, 
reduced Susiana to a mere province of Babylonia, and exacted obedience 
from many Arabian tribes. He built the grandest of all the Assyrian. 


COURT OF SARGON'S PALACE, AT KHORSABAD. 





















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 


21 


palaces, cultivated music and the arts, and established a sort of royal 
library at Nineveh. 

35. The reign of his son, Asshur-emid-ilin, called Saracus by the Greeks, 

was overwhelmed with disasters. A horde of barbarians, „ ^ 

B. C. o47-625. 

from the plains of Scythia, invaded the empire, and before 
it could recover from the shock, it was rent by a double revolt of Media on 
the north, and Babylonia on the south. Nabopolassar, the Babylonian, 
had been general of the armies of Saracus; but finding himself stronger 
than his master, he made an alliance with Oyax'ares, king of the Medes, 
in concert with whom he besieged and captured Nineveh. The Assyrian 
monarch perished in the flames of his palace, and the two conquerors 
divided his dominions between them. Thus ended the Assyrian Empire, 
B. C. 625. 

36. The Third Period was the Golden Age of Assyrian Art. The 
sculptured marbles which have been brought from the palaces of Sargon, 
Sennacherib, and Asshur-bani-pal, show a skill and genius in the carving 
which remind us of the Greeks. A few may be seen in collections of col¬ 
leges and other learned societies in this country. The most magnificent 
specimens are in the British Museum, the Louvre at Paris, and the Oriental 
Museum at Berlin. During the same period the sciences of geography and 
astronomy were cultivated with great diligence; studies in language and 
history occupied multitudes of learned men; and modern scholars, as they 
decipher the long-buried memorials, are filled with admiration of the mental 
activity which characterized the times of the Lower Empire of Assyria. 

Kings of Assyria. 

For the First and more than half the Second Period, the names are 
discontinuous and dates unknown. We begin, therefore, with the eia of 
ascertained chronology. 


Kings of the Second Period. 


Asshur-danin-il I 

died 

B. C. 909. 

Hu-likh-khus III 

reigned 

“ 909-889. 

Tiglatlii-nin II 

u 

“ 889-886. 

Asshur-nasir-pal I 

u 

“ 886-858. 

Shalmaneser II 

u 

“ 858-823. 

Shamas-iva 

u 

“ 823-810. 

Hu-likh-khus IV 

u 

“ 810-781. 

Shalmaneser III 

u 

“ 781-771. 

Asshur-danin-il II 

« 

“ 771-753. 

Asshur-likh-khus 

u 

“ 753-745. 


22 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Kings of the Third Period. 


Tiglath-pileser II, usurper,* . . . 

Shalmaneser IV,. 

Sargon, usurper,. 

Sennacherib,. 

Esarhaddon, . 

Asshur-bani-pal, .... about 
Asshur-emid-ilin,. 


B. C. 745—727. 
“ 727-721. 

“ 721-705. 

“ 705-680. 

“ . 680-667. 
“ 667-647. 

“ 647-625. 


RECAPITULATION-. 


A kingdom of mighty hunters and great builders is founded by Nimrod, B. C. 
2000. Chaldfea becomes subject, first to Arabian, then to Assyrian invaders, but is 
made independent by Pul, B. C. 772. The Assyrian monarchy absorbs the Chal- 
dsean, and extends itself from Syria, to the Persian mountains. After two hundred 
years’ depression, its records become authentic B. C. 909. Iva-lusli and Samnniramit 
reign jointly over greatly increased territories. The Lower Empire is established 
by Tiglath-pileser II, whose dominion reaches the Mediterranean. Sargon records 
many conquests in bis palace at Khorsabad. Sennacherib recaptures Babylon and 
gains victories over Egypt and Palestine. The Assyrian Empire is increased by 
Esarhaddon, and culminates under Asshur-bani-pal, only to be overthrown in the 
next reign by a Scythian invasion and a revolt of Media and Babylonia. 


MEDIAN MONARCHY. 


37. Little is known of the Medes before the invasion of their country 
by Shalmaneser II, B. C. 830, and its partial conquest by Sargon, f in 710. 
They had some importance, however, in the earliest times after the Deluge, 
for Berosus tells us that a Median dynasty governed Babylon during that 
period. The country was doubtless divided among petty chieftains, whose 
rivalries prevented its becoming great or famous in the view of foreign 
nations. 


* The student’s memory may be aided by some explanation of the' long 
names of the Assyrian kings. They resemble the Hebrew in their composition ; 
and. as in that language, each may form a complete sentence. Of the two, three, 
or four distinct words which always compose a royal appellation, one is usually 
the name of a divinity. Thus, Tiglathi-nin = “ Worship be to Nin ” (the Assyrian 
Hercules); Tiglath-pileser =“ Worship be to the Son of Zira;” Sargon = “The 
King is established;” Esar-haddon = “ Asshur has given a brother.” 

In Babylonian names, Nebo, Merodach, Bel, and Nergal correspond to Asshur, 
Sin, and Shamas in Assyrian. Thus, Abed-nego (for Nebo) is the “Servant of 
Nebo ;” Nebuchadnezzar means “ Nebo protect my race,” or “ Nebo is the protector 
of landmarks;” Nabopolassar = “Nebo protect my son ’’—the exact equivalent of 
Asshur-nasir-pal in the Assyrian Dynasty of the Second Period. 


t See g 32. 







MEDIAN MONA R CIIY. 


23 


38. About 740 B. C., according to Herodotus, the Medes revolted from 
Assyria, and chose for their king Dei'oces, whose integrity as a judge had 
marked him as fittest for supreme command. He built the city of Ecbat'- 
ana, which he fortified with seven concentric circles of stone, the innermost 
being gilded so that its battlements shone like gold. Here Deioces estab¬ 
lished a severely ceremonious etiquette, making up for his want of hered¬ 
itary rank by all the external tokens of the divinity that “ doth hedge a 
king.” No courtier was permitted to laugh in his presence, or to approach 
him without the profoundest expressions of reverence. Either his real 
dignity of character or these stately ceremonials had such effect, that he 
enjoyed a prosperous reign of fifty-three years. Though Deioces is de¬ 
scribed by Herodotus as King of the Medes, it is probable that he was 
ruler only of a single tribe, and that a great part of his story is merely 
imaginary. 

39. The true history of the Median kingdom dates from B. C. 650, 
when Phraor'tes was on the throne. This king, who is called the son 
of Deioces, extended his authority over the Persians, and formed that close 
connection of the Medo-Persian tribes which was never to be dissolved. 
The supremacy was soon gained by the latter nation. The double kingdom 
was seen by Daniel in his vision, under the form of a ram, one of whose 
horns was higher than the other, and “ the higher came up last.” (Daniel 
viii: 3, 20.) Phraor'tes, reinforced by the Persians, made many conquests 
in Upper Asia. He was killed in a war against the last king of Assyria, 
B. C. 633. 

40. Determined to avenge his father’s death, Cyaxares renewed the war 
with Assyria. He was called off to resist a most formidable incursion 
of barbarians from the north of the Caucasus. These Scythians became 
masters of Western Asia, and their insolent dominion is said to have lasted 
twenty-eight years. A band of the nomads were received into the service 
of Cyaxares as huntsmen. According to Herodotus, they returned one day 
empty-handed from the chase; and upon the king’s expressing his dis¬ 
pleasure, their ferocious temper burst all bounds. They served up to him, 
instead of game, the flesh of one of the Median boys who had been placed 
with them to learn their language and the use of the bow, and then fled to 
the court of the King of Lydia. This circumstance led to a war between 
Alyat'tes and Cyaxares, which continued five years without any decisive 
result. It was terminated by an eclipse of the sun occurring in the midst 
of a battle. The two kings hastened to make peace; and the treaty, 
which fixed the boundary of their two empires at the River Halys, was 
confirmed by the marriage of the son of Cyaxares with the daughter of 
Alyattes. The Scythian oppressions were ended by a general massacre of 
the barbarians, who, by a secretly concerted plan, had been invited to ban¬ 
quets aqd made drunken with wine. 


24 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


41. Cyaxares now resumed his plans against Assyria. In alliance with 
Nabopolassar, of Babylon, he was able to capture Nineveh, overthrow the 
empire, and render Media a leading power in Asia. The successful wars 
of Cyaxares secured for himself and his son nearly half a century of peace, 
during which the Medes rapidly adopted the luxurious habits of the nations 
they had conquered. The court of Ecbatana became as magnificent as 
that of Nineveh had been when at the height of its grandeur. The 
courtiers delighted in silken garments of scarlet and purple, with collars 
and bracelets of gold, and the same precious metal adorned the harness of 
their horses. Reminiscences of the old barbaric life remained in an 
excessive fondness for hunting, which was indulged either in the parks 
about the capital, or in the open country, where lions, leopards, bears, 
wild boars, stags, and antelopes still abounded. The great wooden 
palace, covered with plates of gold and silver, as well as other buildings 
of the capital, showed a barbarous fondness for costly materials, rather 
than grandeur of architectural ideas. The Magi, a priestly caste, had 
great influence in the Median court. The education of each young king 
was confided to them, and they continued throughout his life to be his 
most confidential counselors. 

42. B. C. 593. Cyaxares died after a reign of forty years. His son, 
Asty'ages, reigned thirty-five years in friendly and peaceful alliance with 
the kings of Lydia and Babylon. Little is known of him except the 
events connected with his fall, and these will be found related in the 
history of Cyrus, Book II. 


Known Kings of Media. 

Phraortes died B. C. 633. 

Cyaxares reigned “ 633-593. 

Astyages “ “ 593-558. 

Note.— It is impossible to reconcile the chronology of the reign of Cyaxares with 
all the ancient accounts. If the Scythian invasion occurred after the beginning of 
his reign, continued twenty-eight years, and ended before the Fall of Nineveh, it is 
easy to see that the date of the latter event must have been later than is given in 
the text. The French school of Orientalists place it, in fact, B. C. 606, and the 
accession of Cyaxares in 634. The English .school, with Sir H. Rawlinson at their 
head, give the dates which we have adopted. 


BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 

43. For nearly five hundred years, Babylon had been governed by 
Assyrian viceroys, when Nabonassar (747 B. C.) threw off the yoke, and 
established an independent kingdom. He destroyed the humiliating 
records of former servitude, and began a new era from which Babylonian 
time was afterward reckoned. 


BAB YLOMAN MONARCHY. 


25 


B. C. 721-709. 


44. Merodach-baladan, the fifth king of this line, sent an embassy to 
Hezekiah, king of Judah, to congratulate him upon his 
recovery from illness, and to inquire concerning an extra¬ 
ordinary phenomenon connected with his restoration. (Isaiah xxxviii: 
7,8; xxxix : 1.) This shows that the Babylonians were no less alert for 
astronomical observations than their predecessors, the Chaldaeans. In fact, 
the brilliant clearness of their heavens early led the inhabitants of this 
region to a study of the stars. The sky was mapped out in constellations, 
and the fixed stars were catalogued; time was measured by sun-dials, and 
other astronomical instruments were invented by the Babylonians. 

45. The same Merodach-baladan was taken captive by Sargon, king 
of Assyria, and held for six years, while an Assyrian viceroy occupied his 
throne. He escaped and resumed his government, but was again dethroned 
by Sennacherib, son of Sargon. The kingdom remained in a troubled 
state, usually ruled by Assyrians, but seeking independence, R c ^ 
until Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, conquered Babylon, 

built himself a palace, and reigned alternately at that city and at Nineveh. 
His son, Sa'os-duchi'nus, governed Babylon as viceroy for 
twenty years, and was succeeded by Cinnelada / nus, another b. c. 647-625. 
Assyrian, who ruled twenty-two years. 

46. B. C. 625. Second Period. Nabopolas'sar, a Babylonian general, 

took occasion, from the misfortunes of the Assyrian Empire, _ ^ ^ 

to end the long subjection of his people. He allied himself 

with Cyaxares, the Median king, to besiege Nineveh and overthrow the 
empire. In the subsequent division of spoils, he received Susiana, the 
Euphrates Valley, and the whole of Syria, and erected a new empire, 
whose history is among the most brilliant of ancient times. The extension 
of his dominions westward brought him in collision with a powerful 
neighbor, Pha'raoh-ne'choh, of Egypt, who actually subdued R c m 

the Syrian provinces, and held them a few years. But 
Nabopolassar sent his still more powerful son, Nebuchadnezzar, who 
chastised the Egyptian king in the battle of Car'chemish, 
and wrested from him the stolen provinces. He also be¬ 
sieged Jerusalem, and returned to Babylon laden with the treasures of the 
temple and palace of Solomon. He brought in his train JehoPakim, king 
of Judah, and several young persons of the royal family, among whom 
was the prophet Daniel. 

47. During his son’s campaign, Nabopolassar had died at Babylon, and 
the victorious prince was immediately acknowledged as R c 604 _ 561 
king. Nebuchadnezzar made subsequent wars in Phoenicia, 

Palestine, and Egypt, and established an empire which extended westward 
to the Mediterranean Sea. He deposed the king of Egypt, and placed 
Amasis upon the throne as his deputy. ZedekPah, who had been elevated 


B. c. 605. 


26 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


to the throne of Judah, rebelled against Babylon, and Nebuchadnezzar set 
out in person to punish his treachery. He besieged Jerusalem eighteen 
months, and captured Zedekiah, who, with true Eastern cruelty, was com¬ 
pelled to see his two sons murdered before his eyes were put out, and he 
was carried in chains to Babylon. In a later war, Nebuzar-adan, general 
of the armies of Nebuchadnezzar, destroyed Jerusalem, burned the temple 
and palaces, and carried the remnant of the people to Babylon. The 
strong and wealthy city of Tyre revolted, and resisted for thirteen years 
the power of the great king, but at length submitted, and all Phoenicia 
remained under the Babylonian yoke. B. C. 585. 

48. The active mind of Nebuchadnezzar, absorbed in schemes of con¬ 
quest, began to be visited by dreams, in one of which the series of great 
empires which were yet to arise in the east was distinctly foreshadowed. 
Of all the wise men of the court, Daniel alone was enabled to interpret 
the vision; and his spiritual insight, together with the singular elevation 
and purity of his character, gained him the affectionate confidence of the 
king. (Read Daniel ii.) 

41). The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was illustrated by grand public works. 
His wife, a Median princess, sighed for her native mountains, and was dis¬ 
gusted with the flatness of the Babylonian plain, the greatest in the ancient 
world. To gratify her, the elevated — rather than “hanging” — gardens 
were created. Arches were raised on arches in continuous series until they 
overtopped the walls of Babylon, and stairways led from terrace to terrace. 
The whole structure of masonry was overlaid with soil sufficient to nourish 
the largest trees, which, by means of hydraulic engines, were supplied from 
the river with abundant moisture. In the midst of these groves stood the 
royal winter residence; for a retreat, which in other climates would be most 
suitable for a summer habitation, was here reserved for those cooler months 
in which alone man can live in the open air. This first great work of land¬ 
scape gardening which history describes, comprised a charming variety of 
hills and forests, rivers, cascades, and fountains, and was adorned with the 
loveliest flowers the East could afford. 

50. The same king surrounded the city with walls of burnt brick, two 
hundred cubits high and fifty in thickness, which, together with the 
gardens, were reckoned among the Seven Wonders of the World. During 
his reign and that of his son-in-law, Nabona / dius, the whole countrv was 
enriched by works of public utility: canals, reservoirs, and sluices were 
multiplied, and the shores of the Persian Gulf were improved by means of 
piers and embankments. 

51. Owing to these encouragements, as well as to her fortunate position 
midway between the Indus and the Mediterranean, with the Gulf and the 
two great rivers for natural highways, Babylon was thronged with the 
merchants of all nations, and her commerce embraced the known world. 


BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 


27 


Manufactures, also, were numerous and famous. The cotton fabrics of the 
towns on the Tigris and Euphrates were unsurpassed for fineness of quality 
and brilliancy of color; and carpets, which were in great demand among 
the luxurious Orientals, were nowhere produced in such magnificence as in 
the looms of Babylon. 

52. It is not strange that the pride of Nebuchadnezzar was kindled by 
the magnificence of his capital. As he walked upon the summit of his 
new palace, and looked down upon the swarming multitudes who owed 
their prosperity to his protection and fostering care, he said, “ Is not this 
great Babylon, that I have built for the house of the kingdom by the 
might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty?” At that moment 
the humiliation foretold in a previous dream, interpreted by Daniel, came 
upon him. We can not better describe the manner of the judgment than 
in the king’s own words (Daniel iv : 31-37) : 

‘‘While the word was in the king’s mouth, there fell a voice from heaven, 
saying, O King Nebuchadnezzar, to thee it is spoken; The kingdom is de- 
parted from thee. And they shall drive thee from men, and thy dwelling 
shall be with the beasts of the field: they shall make thee to eat grass as 
oxen, and seven times shall pass over thee, until thou know that the Most 
High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will. 
The same hour was the thing fulfilled upon Nebuchadnezzar: and he was 
driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body was wet with 
the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles’ feathers, and his 
nails like birds’ claws. And at the end of the days, I, Nebuchadnezzar, 
lifted up mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned unto 
me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and honored him that 
liveth forever, whose dominion is an everlasting dominion, and his king¬ 
dom is from generation to generation.At the same time my reason 

returned unto me; and for the glory of my kingdom, mine honor and 
brightness returned unto me; and my counselors and my lords sought unto 
me; and I was established in my kingdom, and excellent majesty was added 
unto me. Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise and extol and honor the King 
of heaven, all whose works are truth, and his ways judgment: and those 
that walk in pride he is able to abase.” 

53. The immediate successors of Nebuchadnezzar were not his equals in 
character or talent. Evil-merodach, his son, was murdered B c 5 g 1559 
after a reign of two years by Nereglis / sar, his sister’s husband. 

This prince was advanced in years when he ascended the throne, having 
been already a chief officer of the crown thirty years before ^ ^ 559 - 555 . 
at the siege of Jerusalem. He reigned but four years, and 
was succeeded by his son, La / borosoar / chod. The young king was mur¬ 
dered, after only nine months’ reign, by NabomTdius, who became the 
last king of Babylon. The usurper strengthened his title by marrying a 


28 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


daughter of Nebuchadnezzar — probably the widow of Nereglissar— and 

afterward bv associating their son Belshazzar with him in 

B. C. 555-538. J 

the government. He also sought security in foreign alli¬ 
ances. He fortified his capital by river walls, and constructed water-works 
in connection with the river above the city, by which the whole plain north 
and west could be flooded to prevent the approach, of an enemy. 

54. A new power was indeed arising in the East, against which the 
three older but feebler monarchies, Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt, found it 
necessary to combine their forces. After the conquest of Lydia, and the 
extension of the Persian Empire to the iEgean Sea, Nabonadius had still 
fifteen years for preparation. He improved the time by laying up enor¬ 
mous quantities of food in Babylon ; and felt confident that, though the 
country might be overrun, the strong walls of Nebuchadnezzar would enable 
him cheerfully to defy his foe. On the approach of Cyrus he resolved to 
risk one battle; but in this he was defeated, and compelled to take refuge 
in Bor'sippa. His son Belshazzar, being left in Babylon, indulged in a 
false assurance of safety. Cyrus, by diverting the course of the Euphrates, 
opened a way for his army into the heart of the city, and the court was 
surprised in the midst of a drunken revel, unprepared for resistance. The 
young prince, unrecognized in the confusion, was slain at the gate of his 
palace. Nabonadius, broken by the loss of his capital and his son, surren¬ 
dered himself a prisoner; and the dominion of the East passed to the Medo- 
Persian race. Babylon became the second city of the empire, and the 
Persian court resided there the greater portion of the year. 

eecapitijlatioit. 

Deioces, the first reputed king of Media, built and adorned Ecbatana. Phraortes 
united the Medes and Persians into one powerful kingdom. In the reign of Cyax- 
ares, the Scythians ruled Western Asia twenty-eight years. After their expulsion, 
•Cyaxares, in alliance with the Babylonian viceroy, overthrew the Assyrian Em¬ 
pire, divided its territories with his ally, and raised his own dominion to a high 
degree of wealth. His son Astyages reigned peacefully thirty-five years. 

Babylon, under Nabonassar, became independent of Assyria, B. C. 747. Mero- 
dach-baladan, the fifth native king, was twice deposed, by Sargon and Sennacherib, 
and the country again remained forty-two years under Assyrian rule. It was de¬ 
livered by Nabopolassar, whose still more powerful son, Nebuchadnezzar,gained 
great victories over the kings of Judah and Egypt, replacing the lat ter with vice¬ 
roys of his own, and transporting the former, with the princes, nobles, and sacred 
treasures of Jerusalem, to Babylon. By a thirteen years’ siege, Tyre was subdued 
and all Phoenicia conquered. From visions interpreted by Daniel, Nebuchadnezzar 
learned the future rise and fall of Asiatic empires. He constructed the Hanging 
Gardens, the walls of Babylon, and many other public works. His pride was 
punished by seven years’ degradation. Evil-merodach was murdered by Nereg¬ 
lissar, who after four years bequeathed his crown to Laborosoarchod. Nabonadius 
obtained the throne by violence, and in concert with his son Belshazzar, tried to 
protect his dominions against Cyrus; but Babylon was taken and the empire 
overthrown, B. C. 538. 


KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR. 


29 


KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR. 

55. The Anatolian peninsula, divided by its mountain chains into 
several sections, was occupied from very ancient times by different nations 
nearly equal in power. Of these, the Phrygians were probably the ear¬ 
liest settlers, and at one time occupied the whole peninsula. Successive 
immigrations from the east and west pressed them inward from the coast, 
but they still had the advantage of a large and fertile territory. They 
were a brave but rather brutal race, chiefly occupied with agriculture, and 
especially the raising of the vine. 

56. The Phrygians came from the mountains of Armenia, whence they 
brought a tradition of the Flood, and of the resting of the ark on Mount 
Ararat. They were accustomed, in primitive times, to hollow their habita¬ 
tions out of the rock of the Anatolian hills, and many of these rock cities 
may be found in all parts of Asia Minor. Before the time of Homer, 
however, they had well-built towns and a flourishing commerce. 

57. Their religion consisted of many dark and mysterious rites, some 
of which were afterward copied by the Greeks. The worship of Cyb'ele, 
and of Saba'zius, god of the vine, was accompanied by the wildest music 
and dances. The capital of Phrygia was Gor'dium, on the Sanga'rius. 
The kings were alternately called GoFdias and Mi'das, but we have no 
chronological lists. Phrygia became a province of Lydia B. C. 560. 

58. In later times Lydia became the greatest kingdom in Asia Minor, 
both in wealth and power, absorbing in its dominion the whole peninsula, 
except Lycia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. Three dynasties successively bore 
rule: the Atyadce , before 1200 B. C.; the Heraclidce, for the next 505 years; 
and the Mermnadce, from B. C. 694 until 546, when Croesus, the last and 
greatest monarch, was conquered by the Persians. The name of this king 
has become proverbial from his enormous wealth. When associated with 
his father as crown prince, he was visited by Solon of Athens, who looked 
on all the splendor of the court with the coolness of a philosopher. 
Annoyed by his indifference, the prince asked Solon who, of all the men 
he had encountered in his travels, seemed to him the happiest. To his 
astonishment, the wise man named two persons in comparatively humble 
stations, but the one of whom was blessed with dutiful children, and the 
other had died a triumphant and glorious death. The vanity of Croesus 
could no longer abstain from a direct effort to extort a compliment. He 
asked if Solon did not consider him a happy man. The philosopher gravely 
replied that, such were the vicissitudes of life, no man, in his opinion, 
could safely be pronounced happy until his life was ended. 

59. Croesus extended his power over not only the whole Anatolian 
peninsula, but the Greek islands both of the HCgean and Ionian seas. He 
made an alliance with Sparta, Egypt, and Babylon to resist the growing 


so 


ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 


empire of Cyrus; but his precautions were ineffectual; he was defeated 
and made prisoner. He is said to have been bound upon a funeral pile, 
or altar, near the gate of his capital, when he recalled with anguish of 
heart the words of the Athenian sage, and three times uttered his name, 
xt Solon, Solon, Solon!” Cyrus, who was regarding the scene with curi¬ 
osity, ordered his interpreters to inquire what god or man he had thus 
invoked in his distress. The captive king replied that it was the name 
of a man with whom he wished that every monarch might be acquainted; 
and described the visit and conversation of the serene philosopher who 
had remained undazzled by his splendor. The conqueror was inspired 
with a more generous emotion by the remembrance that he, too, was 
mortal; he caused Croesus to be released and to dwell with him as a 
friend. 


Kings of Lydia. 

Of the First and Second Dynasties, the names are only partially known, 
and dates are wanting. 


Atycidce : 

Heraclidce, last six: 

Mermnadce: 

Manes, 

Adyattes I, 

Gyges, 

B. C. 694-678. 

Atys, 

Ardys, 

Ardys, 

“ 678-629. 

Lvdus, 

Adyattes II, 

Sadyattes, 

“ 629-617. 

Meles. 

Meles, 

Alyattes, 

“ 617-560. 


Myrsus, 

Croesus, 

“ • 560-546. 


Candaules. 




PHOENICIA. 

60. The small strip of land between Mount Lebanon and the sea was 
more important to the ancient world than its size would indicate. Here 
arose the first great commercial cities, and Phoenician vessels wove a web 
of peaceful intercourse between the nations of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 

61. Sidon was probably the most ancient, and until B. C. 1050, the 
most flourishing, of all the Phoenician communities. About that year the 
Philistines of Askalon gained a victory over Sidon, and the exiled inhab¬ 
itants took refuge in the rival city of Tyre. Henceforth the daughter 
surpassed the mother in wealth and power. When Herodotus visited Tyre, 
he found a temple of Hercules which claimed to be 2,300 years old. This 
would give Tyre an antiquity of 2,750 years B. C. 

62. Other chief cities of Phoenicia were Bery'tus (Beirut), ByVlus, 
TrPpolis, and Ara / dus. Each with its surrounding territory made an 
independent state. Occasionally in times of danger they formed them¬ 
selves into a league, under the direction of the most powerful; but the 


PIKENI CIA. 


31 


name Phoenicia applies merely to territory, not to a single well organized 
state, nor even to a permanent confederacy. Each .city was ruled by its 
king, but a strong priestly influence and a powerful aristocracy, either 
of birth or wealth, restrained the despotic inclinations of the monarch. 

63. The commerce of the Phoenician cities had no rival in the earlier 
centuries of their prosperity. Their trading stations sprang up rapidly 
along the coasts and upon the islands of the Mediterranean; and even 
beyond the Pillars of Hercules, their city of Gades (Kadesh), the modern 
Cadiz, looked out upon the Atlantic. These remote colonies were only 
starting points from which voyages were made into still more distant 
regions. Merchantmen from Cadiz explored the western coasts of Africa 
and Europe. From the stations on the Red Sea, trading vessels were fitted 
out for India and Ceylon. 

64. At a later period, the Greeks absorbed the commerce of the Euxine 
and the iEgean, while Carthage claimed her share in the Western Medi¬ 
terranean and the Atlantic. By this time, however, Western Asia was 
more tranquil under the later Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs; and 
the wealth of Babylon attracted merchant trains from Tyre across the 
Syrian Desert by way of Tadmor. Other caravans moved northward, and 
exchanged the products of Phoenician industry for the horses, mules, 
slaves, and copper utensils of Armenia and Cappadocia. A friendly inter¬ 
course was always maintained with Jerusalem, and a land-traffic with the 
Red Sea, which was frequented by Phoenician fleets. Gold from Ophir, 
pearls and diamonds from Eastern India and Ceylon, silver from Spain, 
linen embroidery from Egypt, apes from Western Africa, tin from the 
British Isles, and amber from the Baltic, might be found in the cargoes 
of Tyrian vessels. 

65. The Phoenicians in general were merchants, rather than manufac¬ 
turers; but their bronzes and vessels in gold and silver, as well as other 
works in metal, had a high repute. They claimed the invention of glass, 
which they manufactured into many articles of use and ornament. But 
the most famous of their products was the “Tyrian purple,” which they 
obtained in minute drops from the two shell-fish, the buccinum and murex , 
and by means of which they gave a high value to their fabrics of wool. 

66 . About the time of Pygmaflion, the warlike expeditions of Shal¬ 
maneser II overpowered the Phoenician towns, and for more than two 
hundred years they remained tributary to the Assyrian Empire. Frequent 
but usually vain attempts were made, during the latter half of ibis period, 
to throw off the yoke. With the fall of Nineveh it is probab.e that Phoe¬ 
nicia became independent. 

67. B. C. 608. It was soon reduced, however, by Necho of Egypt, who 
added all Syria to his dominions, and held Phoenicia dependent until he 
himself was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar (B. C. 605) at Carchemish. 


32 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


The captive cities were only transferred to a new master; but, in 598, Tyre 
revolted against the Babylonian, and sustained a siege of thirteen years. 
When at length she was compelled to submit, the conqueror found no 
plunder to reward the extreme severity of his labors, for the inhabitants 
had secretly removed their treasures to an island half a mile distant, where 
New Tyre soon excelled the splendor of the Old. 

08. Phoenicia remained subject to Babylon until that power was over¬ 
come by the new empire of Cyrus the Great. The local government was 
carried on by native kings or judges, who paid tribute to the Babylonian 
king. 

69. The religion of the Phoenicians was degraded by many cruel and 
uncleanly rites. Their chief divinities, Baal and AstaPte, or Ashtaroth, 
represented the sun and moon. Baal was worshiped in groves on high 
places, sometimes, like the Ammonian Moloch, with burnt-offerings of 
human beings; always with wild, fanatical rites, his votaries crying aloud 
and cutting themselves with knives. Melcarth, the Tyrian Hercules, was 
worshiped only at Tyre and her colonies. His symbol was an ever-burning 
fire, and he probably shared with Baal the character of a sun-god. The 
marine deities were of especial importance to these commercial cities. 
Chief of these were PosPdon, Ne / reus, and Pontus. Of lower rank, but 
not less constantly remembered, were the little CabPri, whose images 
formed the figure-heads of Phoenician ships. The seat of their worship 
was at Berytus. 

70. The Phoenicians were less idolatrous than the Egyptians, Greeks, or 
Romans; for their temples contained either no visible image of their dei¬ 
ties, or only a rude symbol like the conical stone which was held to repre¬ 
sent Astarte. 

Kings of Tyre. 

First Period. 

Abibaal, partly contemporary with David in Israel. 

Hiram, his son, friend of David and Solomon, . B. C 1025-991. 


Balea'zar,. “ 991-984. 

Abdastar'tus,. “ 984 - 975 . 

One of his assassins, whose name is unknown, . “ 975-963. 

Astartus,. “ 963-951. 

Aser'ymus, his brother,. “ 951-942. 

Phales, another brother, who murdered Aserymus, “ 942-941. 

Ethba'al,* high priest of Astarte,. “ 941-909. 

Bade'zor, his son,. “ 909-903. 


* His daughter Jezebel became the wife of Ahab, king of Israel. His reign is 
marked in Phoenician annals by a drought which extended throughout Syria. 









SYRIA. 


33 


Matgen, son of Badezor and father of Dido, . . B. C. 903-871. 
Pygmalion, brother of Dido, . “ 871-824. 

For 227 years Tyre remained tributary to the Eastern Monarchies, and 
we have no list of her native rulers. 


Second Period. 

Ethbaal II, contemporary with Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 597-573. 

Baal,. “ 573-563. 

Ec'niba'al, judge for three months,. “ 563. 

CheFbes, judge ten months,. “ 563-562. 

Abba'rus, judge three months,. “ 562. 

Mytgon and GerastaFtus, judges five years, . . “ 562-557. 

Bala'tor, king, . ». “ 557-556. 

Merbal, king,. “ 556-552. 

Hiram, king,. “ 552-532. 


SYRIA. 

71. Syria Proper was divided between several states, of which the most 
important in ancient times was Damascus, with its territory, a fertile 
country between Anti-Lebanon and the Syrian Desert. Beside this were 
the northern Hittites, whose chief city was Carchemish; the southern 
Hittites, in the region of the Dead Sea; the Patera on the lower, and 
Hamath on the upper Orontes. 

72. Damascus, on the Abana, is among the oldest cities in the world. 
It resisted the conquering arms of David and Solomon, who, with this 
exception, reigned over all the land between the Jordan and the Eu¬ 
phrates ; and it continued to be a hostile and formidable neighbor to the 
Hebrew monarchy, until Jews, Israelites, and Syrians were all alike over¬ 
whelmed by the growth of the Assyrian Empire. 


Kings of Damascus. 


Hadad, contemporary with David, 

about B. C. 

1040. 

Rezon, 

U 

Solomon, 


U 

1000 . 

Tab-rimmon, 

U 

Abijah, 


<< 

960-950. 

Ben-hadad I, 

u 

Baasha and Asa, 


u 

950-920. 

Ben-hadad II, 

u 

Ahab, 


u 

900. 

Hazael, 

u 

Jehu and Shalmaneser II, 

u 

850. 

Ben-hadad III, 

u 

Jehoahaz, 


u 

840. 

Unknown until Rezin, 

u 

Ahaz of Judah, 


u 

745-732. 


A. H.—3. 









34 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


JUDAEA. 

73. The history of the Hebrew race is better known to us than that of 
any other people equally ancient, because it has been carefully preserved 
in the sacred writings. The separation of this race for its peculiar and 
important part in the world’s history, began with the call of Abraham 
from his home, near the Euphrates, to the more western country on the 
Mediterranean, which was promised to himself and his descendants. The 
story of his sons and grandsons, before and during their residence in 
Egypt, belongs, however, to family rather than national history. Their 
numbers increased until they became objects of apprehension to the 
Egyptians, who tried to break their spirit by servitude. At length, Moses 
grew up under the fostering care of Pharaoh himself; and after a forty 
years’ retirement in the deserts of Midian, adding the dignity of age and 
lonely meditation to the “learning of the Egyptians,” he became the 
liberator and law-giver of his people. 

74. The history of the Jewish nation begins with the night of their 
exodus from Egypt. The people were mustered according to their tribes, 
which bore the names of the twelve sons of Jacob, the grandson of Abra¬ 
ham. The sons of Joseph, however, received each a portion and gave their 
names to the two tribes of Ephraim and Manas'seh. The family of Jacob 
went into Egypt numbering sixty-seven persons; it went out numbering 
603,550 warriors, not counting the Levites, who were exempted from 
military duty that they might have charge of the tabernacle and the 
vessels used in worship. 

75. After long marches and countermarches through the Arabian 
desert — needful to arouse the spirit of a free people from the cowed and 
groveling habits of the slave, as well as to counteract the long example of 
idolatry by direct Divine revelation of a pure and spiritual worship — the 
Israelites were led into the land promised to Abraham, which lay chiefly 
between the Jordan and the sea. Two and a half of the twelve tribes — 
Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh — preferred the fertile 
pastures east of the Jordan ; and on condition of aiding their brethren in 
the conquest of their more westerly territory, received their allotted portion 
there. 

76. Moses, their great leader through the desert, died outside the 
Promised Land, and was buried in the land of Moab. His lieutenant, 
Joshua, conquered Palestine and divided it among the tribes. The inhab¬ 
itants of Gibeon hastened to make peace with the invaders by a stratagem. 
Though their falsehood was soon discovered, Joshua was faithful to his 
oath already taken, and the Gibeonites escaped the usual fate of extermina¬ 
tion pronounced upon the inhabitants of Canaan, by becoming servants 
and tributaries to the Hebrews. 


f 


JUDAEA. 


35 


77. The kings of Palestine now assembled their forces to besiege the 
traitor city, in revenge for its alliance with the strangers. Joshua hastened 
to its assistance, and in the great battle of Beth-horon defeated, routed, 
and destroyed the armies of the five kings. This conflict decided the pos¬ 
session of central and southern Palestine. Jabin, “king of Canaan,” still 
made a stand in his fortress of Hazor, in the north. The conquered kings 
had probably been in some degree dependent on him as their superior, if 
not their sovereign. He now mustered all the tribes which had not fallen 
under the sword of the Israelites, and encountered Joshua at the waters of 
JVIerom. Jhe Ganaanites had horses and chariots; the Hebrews were on 
foot, but their victory was as complete and decisive as at Beth-horon. 
Hazor was taken and burnt, and its king beheaded. 

78. The nomads of the forty years in the desert now became a settled, 
civilized, and agricultural people. Shiloh was the first permanent sanctu¬ 
ary ; there the tabernacle constructed in the desert was set up, and became 
the shrine of the national worship. 

79. Jewish History is properly divided into three periods: 

I. From the Exodus to the establishment of the Monarchy, B. C. 1650- 
1095. (See Note, page 47.) 

II. From the accession of Saul to the separation into two kingdoms, 
B. C. 1095-975. 

III. From the separation of the kingdoms to the Captivity at Babylon, 
B. C. 975-586. 

80. During the First Period the government of the Hebrews was a 
simple theocracy, direction for all important movements being received 
through the high priest from God himself. The rulers, from Moses down, 
claimed no honors of royalty, but led the nation in war and judged it in 
peace by general consent. They were designated to their office at once by 
revelation from heaven, and by some special fitness in character or person 
which was readily perceived. Thus the zeal and courage of Gideon, the 
lofty spirit of Deborah, the strength of Samson, rendered them most fit for 
command in the special emergencies at which they arose. The “Judge” 
usually appeared at some time of danger or calamity, when the people 
would gladly welcome any deliverer; and his power, once conferred, lasted 
during his life. 

After his death a long interval usually occurred, during which “every 
man did that which was right in his own eyes,” until a new invasion by 
Philistines, Ammonites, or Zidonians called for a new leader. The 
chronology of this period is very uncertain, as the sacred writers only 
incidentally mention the time of events, and their records are not always 
continuous. The system of chronology was not settled until a later period. 


36 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Rulers and Judges of Israel. 

Under the Theocracy. 

Moses, liberator, law-giver, and judge,.40 

Joshua, conqueror of Palestine, and judge, . . ..... 25 

Anarchy, idolatry, submission to foreign rulers, . . . 20 or 30 

Servitude under Chushan-risliathaim of Mesopotamia, ... 8 

Othniel, deliverer and judge,.40 

Servitude under Eglon, king of Moab,.18 

| Ehud, 

) Shamgar. In these two reigns the land has rest,.80 

Servitude under Jabin, king of Canaan,.. . 20 

Deborah,.40 

Servitude under Midian, . 7 

Gideon,.40 

Abimelech, king,. 3 

Interregnum of unknown duration, ..— 

Tola, judge,.23 

Jair, judge,.22 

Idolatry and anarchy,...5 

Servitude under Philistines and Ammonites,.18 

Jephthah,.6 

Ibzan, . 7 

Elon,.10 

Abdon,. 8 

Servitude under Philistines, . 40 

Samson, during last half of this period, rules south-western 

Palestine,.20 

Eli, high priest, and judge in south-western Palestine, .... 40 
Samuel, the last of the judges, arises after interregnum of, . . 20 


years 

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81. Second Period. The Israelites at length became dissatisfied with 
the irregular nature of their government, and demanded a king. In com¬ 
pliance with their wishes, Saul, the son of Kish, a young Benjamite distin¬ 
guished by beauty and loftiness of stature, was chosen by Divine command, 
and anointed by Samuel, their aged prophet and judge. 

82. He found the country in nearly the same condition in which Joshua 
had left it. The people were farmers and shepherds; none were wealthy; 
even the king had “no court, no palace, no extraordinary retinue; he was 
still little more than leader in war and judge in peace.” The country 
was still ravaged by Ammonites on one side, and Philistines on the other; 
and under the recent incursions of the latter, the Israelites had become so- 






















JUDjEA. 


37 


weak that they had no weapons nor armor, nor even any workers in iron. 
(I Samuel xiii: 19, 20.) 

83. Saul first defeated the Ammonites, who had overrun Gilead from the 
east; then turned upon the Philistines, and humbled them in the battle of 
Michmash, so that they were driven to defend themselves at home, instead 
of invading Israel, until near the close of his reign. He waged war also 
against the An/alekites, Mo'abites, E'domites, and the Syrians of Zobah, 
and “ delivered Israel out of the hand of them that spoiled them.” 

84. He forfeited the favor of God by disobedience, and David, his future 
son-in-law, was anointed king. Jonathan, the son of Saul, was a firm friend 
and protector of David against the jealous rage of his father. Even the 
king himself, in his better moods, was moved to admiration and affection 
by the heroic character of David. 

85. In Saul’s declining years, the Philistines, under A'chish, king of 
Gath, again invaded the country, and defeated the Israelites at Mount 
Gilboa. Saul and all but one of his sons fell in the battle. Ishbo'sheth, 
the surviving son, was acknowledged king in Gilead, and ruled all the tribes 
except Judah for seven years. But David was crowned in Hebron, and 
reigned over his own tribe until the death of Ishboslieth, when he became 
ruler of the whole nation. 

86. He conquered Jerusalem 
established a kingly court such 
as Israel had never known. 

The ark of the covenant was 
removed from its temporary 
abode at Kirjathje'arim, and 
Jerusalem became henceforth 
the Holy City, the seat of the 
national religion as well as of 
the government. 

87. The wars of David were 
still more victorious than those 
of Saul, and the empire of Is¬ 
rael was now extended from 
the borders of the Red Sea to 
those of the Euphrates. Moab 
was rendered tributary, the 
Philistines punished, and all 
the Syrian tribes east and 
north of Palestine subdued. 

(2 Samuel viii.) 

88. Great as was the military glory of David, his fame with later times 
is derived from his psalms and songs. He was the first great poet of Israel, 


from the Jeb'usites, made it his capital, and 























38 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


and perhaps the earliest in the world. The freshness of the pastures and 
mountain-sides among which his youth was passed, the assurance of Divine 
protection amid the singular and romantic incidents of his varied career, 
the enlargement of his horizon of thought with the magnificent dominion 
which was added to him in later life, all gave a richness and depth to his 
experience, which were reproduced in sacred melody, and found their fitting 
place in the temple service; and every form of Jewish and Christian wor¬ 
ship since his time has been enriched by the poetry of David. 

89. This great hero and poet was not exempt from common human sins 
and follies, and the only disasters of his reign sprang directly from his 
errors. The consequences of his plurality of wives, in the jealousies which 
arose between the different families of princes, distracted his old age with 
a succession of crimes and sorrows. His sons Al/salom and Adoni'jah at 
different times plotted against him and assumed the crown. Both were 
punished for their treason, the one by death in battle, the other by the 
sentence of Solomon after his father’s death. 

90. Solomon, the favorite son of David, succeeded to a peaceful kingdom. 
All the neighboring nations acknowledged his dignity, and the king of Egypt 
B c ioi5 gave him his daughter in marriage. The Israelites were now 

the dominant race in Syria. Many monarchs were tributary 
to the great king, and the court of Jerusalem rivaled in its splendors those 
of Nineveh and Memphis. 

91. Commerce received a great impulse both from the enterprise and 
the luxury of the king. Hiram, king of Tyre, was a firm friend of Sol¬ 
omon, as he had been of David his father. Cedars were brought from 
the forests of Lebanon for the construction of a palace and temple. 
Through his alliance with Hiram, Solomon was admitted to a share in 
Tyrian trade; and by the influence of Pharaoh, his father-in-law, he 
gained from the Edomites the port of Ezion-ge'ber, on the Red Sea, where 
he caused a great fleet of merchant vessels to be constructed. Through 
these different channels of commerce, the rarest products of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa were poured into Jerusalem. Gold and precious stones, sandal¬ 
wood and spices from India, silver from Spain, ivory from Africa, added 
to the luxury of the court. Horses from Egypt, now first introduced into 
Palestine, filled the royal stables. By tribute as well as trade, a constant 
stream of gold and silver flowed into Palestine. 

92. The greatest work of Solomon was the Temple on Mount Moriah, 
which became the permanent abode of the ark of the covenant, and the 
holy place toward which the prayers of Israelites, though scattered 
throughout the world, have ever turned. The temple precincts included 
apartments for the priests, and towers for defense, so that it has been said 
that the various purposes of forum, fortress, university, and sanctuary were 
here combined in one great national building. The superior skill of the 






JUDAEA. 


39 


Phoenicians in working in wood and metal, was enlisted by Solomon in the 
service ot the temple. Hiram, the chief architect and sculptor, was half 
Tyrian, half Israelite, and his genius was held in equal reverence by the 
two kings who claimed his allegiance. More than seven years were occu¬ 
pied in the building of the temple. The Feast of the Dedication drew 
together a vast concourse of people from both extremities of the land — 
“ from Hamath to the River of Egypt.” And so important is this event 
as a turning point in the history of the Jews, that it constitutes the begin¬ 
ning of their connected record of months and years. 

93. The early days of Solomon were distinguished by all the virtues 
whiffii could adorn a prince. In humble consciousness of the greatness 
of the duties assigned him, and the insufficiency of his powers, he chose 
wisdom rather than long life or riches or great dominion, and he was re¬ 
warded by the possession of even that which he had not asked. His wisdom 
became greater than that of all the philosophers of the East; his knowledge 
of natural history, improved by the collections of rare plants and curious 
animals which he gathered from all parts of the world, was considered 
miraculous. (1 Kings iii : 5-15; iv : 29-34.) 

94. But prosperity corrupted his character. He introduced the licentious 
luxury of an Oriental court into the Holy City of David, and even encour¬ 
aged the degrading rites of heathen worship. His commerce enriched him¬ 
self, not his people. His enormous and expensive court was sustained by 
the most exhausting taxes. The great public works which he carried on 
withdrew vast numbers of men from the tillage of the soil, and thus 
lessened the national resources. 

95. The glory of Solomon dazzled the people and silenced their com¬ 
plaints, but on the accession of his son the smothered discon- g _ 5 

tent broke forth. Rehobo'am, instead of soothing his subjects 

by needed reforms, incensed them by his haughty refusal to lighten their 
burdens. (1 Kings xii : 13, 14.) The greater number of the people im¬ 
mediately revolted, under the lead of Jerobo / am, who established a rival 
sovereignty over the Ten Tribes, henceforth to be known as the Kingdom 
of Israel. The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to the 
house of David. 


Kings of the United Monarchy. 


Saul,.B. C. 1095-1055. 

David at Hebron, and Ishbosheth at Mahanaim, “ 1055-1048. 

David, over all Israel,. “ 1048-1015. 

Solomon,. “ 1015-975. 


90. Third Period. The Kingdom of Israel had the more extensive 
and fertile territory, and its population was double that of Judah. It 





40 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


extended from the borders of Damascus to within ten miles of Jerusalem; 
included the whole territory east of the Jordan, and held Moab as a tribu¬ 
tary. But it had no capital equal in strength, beauty, or sacred associa¬ 
tions to Jerusalem. The government was fixed first at She'chem, then at 
Tir'zah, then at Sama'ria. 

97. Its first king, Jeroboam, in order to break the strongest tie which 
bound the people to the house of David, made golden calves for idols, and 
set up sanctuaries in Bethel and Dan, saying, “ It is too much for you to go 
up to Jerusalem ; behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out 
of the land of Egypt! ” A new priesthood was appointed in opposition 
to that of Aaron, and many Levites and other faithful adherents of the 
old religion emigrated into the kingdom of Judah. 

98. The people too readily fell into the snare. A succession of prophets, 
gifted with wonderful powers, strove to keep alive the true worship; but 
the poison of idolatry had entered so deeply into the national life, that it 
was ready to fall upon the first assault from without. In the time of Elijah, 

onlv seven thousand were left who had not “bowed the knee unto Baal:” 

•/ 1 

and even these were unknown to the prophet, being compelled by persecu¬ 
tion to conceal their religion. 

99. The kings of Israel belonged to nine different families, of which 
only two, those of Omri and Jehu, held the throne any considerable time. 
Almost all the nineteen kings had short reigns, and eight died by violence. 
The kingdom was frequently distracted by wars with Judah, Damascus, and 
Assyria. Jeroboam was aided in his war with Judah bv his friend and 
patron in days of exile, Shishak, king of Egypt. Nadab, son of Jeroboam, 
was murdered by Baasha, who made himself king. This monarch began to 
build the fortress of Hamah, by which he intended to hold the Jewish 
frontier, but was compelled to desist by Ben-hadad, of Syria, who thus 
testified his friendship for Asa, king of Judah. 

100. Aliab, of the house of Omri, allied himself with Ethbaal, king of 
Tyre, by marrying his daughter Jez'ebel; and the arts of this wicked and 
idolatrous princess brought the kingdom to its lowest pitch of corruption. 
Her schemes were resisted by Elijah the Tishbite, one of the greatest of 
the prophets, who, in a memorable encounter on Mount Carmel, led the 
people to reaffirm their faith in Jehovah and exterminate the priests of 
Baal. (1 Kings xviii: 17-40.) The evil influence of Jezebel and the Tyrian 
idolatry were not removed from Israel until she herself and her son Jehoram 
had been murdered by order of Jehu, a captain of the guard, who became 
first of a new dynasty of kings. Jehu lost all his territories east of the 
Jordan in war with Hazael, of Damascus, and paid tribute, at least on one 
occasion, to Asshur-nazir-pal, of Assyria.* His son Jehoahaz also lost 
cities to the Syrian king; but Joash, the grandson of Jehu, revived the 

* See p- 19. 


f 



J UDJEA. 


41 


Israelite conquests. He defeated Ben-liadad, son of Hazael, and won back 
part of the conquered territory. His son, Jeroboam II, had the longest and 
most prosperous reign in the annals of the Ten Tribes. He not only re¬ 
gained all the former possessions of Israel, but captured Hamath and 
Damascus. But this was the end of Israelite prosperity. Two short reigns 
followed, each ended by an assassination, and then Men'ahem of Tirzah 
made a vain attempt to renew the glories of Jeroboam II by an expedition 
to the Euphrates. He captured Thapsacus, but drew upon himself the 
vengeance of Pul, king of Chaldsea, who invaded his dominions and made 
Menahem his vassal. 

101 . In the later years of Israelite history, Tiglath-pileser, king of 
Assyria, desolated the country east of the Jordan, and threatened the 
extinction of the kingdom. Hosl/ea, the last king, acknowledged his 
dependence upon the Assyrian Empire, and agreed to pay tribute; but 
he afterward strengthened himself by an alliance with Egypt, and revolted 
against his master. Shalmaneser came to chastise this defection, and be¬ 
sieged Samaria two years. At length it fell, and the disgraceful annals of 
the Israelite kingdom came to an end. 

102 . According to the despotic custom of Eastern monarchs, the people 
were transported to Media and the provinces of Assyria; and for a time 
the country was so desolate that wild beasts multiplied in the cities, 
People were afterward brought from Babylon and the surrounding country 
to take the places of the former inhabitants. 


Kings of Israel. 


Jeroboam,. 

Nadab,. 

Baasha,. 

Elah,. 

Zimri, slew Elah and reigned 7 days,. 

Ornri, captain of the host under Elah,. 

Aliab,. 

Ahaziah,. 

Jehoram,. 

Jehu, .... . 

Jehoahaz, . 

Joash,. 

Jeroboam II,. 

Zechariah, reigned 6 months,. 

Shallum, murdered Zechariah and was himsell murdered, 

Menahem,. 

Pekahiah, . 

Pekah, ... 

Hoshe*, ,.. * * - ■ 


B. C. 

975-954. 

U 

954-953. 

a 

953-930. 

u 

930-929. 

u 

929. 

u 

929-918 

u 

918-897. 

u 

897-896. 

u 

896-884. 

a 

884-856. 

u 

856-839. 

u 

839-823. 

u 

823-772. 

u 

772. 

u 

772. 

u 

772-762. 

u 

762-760. 

a 

760-730. 

u 

730-721. 




















42 


AJSC1ENT HISTORY. 


103 . The Kingdom of Judah began its separate existence at the same 
time with that of revolted Israel, but survived it 135 years. It consisted 
of the two entire tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with numerous refugees 
from the other ten, who were willing to sacrifice home and landed pos¬ 
sessions for their faith. The people were thus closely bound together by 
their common interest in the marvelous traditions of the past and hopes 
for the future. 

104 . Notwithstanding danger from numerous enemies, situated as it was 
on the direct road between the two great rival empires of Egypt and 
Assyria, this little kingdom maintained its existence during nearly four 
centuries; and, unlike Israel, was governed during all that time by kings 
of one family, the house of David. 

The first king, Rehoboam, saw his capital seized and plundered by 
Shi'shak, king of Egypt, and had to maintain a constant warfare with the 
revolted tribes. Abijam, his son, gained a great victory over Jeroboam, by 
which he recovered the ancient sanctuary of Bethel and many other towns. 
Asa was attacked both by the Israelites on the north and the Egyptians on 
the south, but defended himself victoriously from both. With all the re¬ 
maining treasures of the temple and palace, he secured the alliance of 
Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, who, by attacking the northern cities of 
Israel, drew Baasha away from building the fortress of Ramah. The 
stones and timbers which Baasha had collected were carried away, by order 
of Asa, to his own cities of Geba in Benjamin, and Mizpeh in Judah. 

105 . JehoslPaphat, son of Asa, allied himself with Aliab, king of Israel, 
whom he assisted in his Syrian wars. This ill-fated alliance brought the 
poison of Tyrian idolatry into the kingdom of Judah. In the reign of Je- 
horam, who married the daughter of Ahab, Jerusalem was captured by 
Philistines and Arabs. His son, Ahaziah, while visiting his Israelitish 
kindred, was involved in the destruction of the house of Ahab; and after 
his death his mother, AthalPah, a true daughter of Jezebel, murdered all 
her grandchildren but one, usurped the throne for six years, and replaced 
the worship of Jehovah with that of Baal. But JehoPada, the high priest, 
revolted against her, placed her grandson, Joash, on the throne, and kept 
the kingdom clear, so long as he lived, from the taint of idolatry. 

10 <>. Amaziah, the son of Joash, captured Pe'tra from the Edomites, but 
lost his own capital to the king of Israel, who carried away all its treasures. 
Azariah, his son, conquered the Philistines and the Arabs, and reestab¬ 
lished on the Red Sea the port of Elath, which had fallen into decay since 
the days of Solomon. During a long and prosperous reign he strengthened 
the defenses of Jerusalem, reorganized his army, and improved the tillage 
of the country. But he presumed upon his dignity and the excellence of 
his former conduct to encroach upon the office of the priests, and was pun¬ 
ished by a sudden leprosy, which separated him from human society the 


r 


JUDAEA. 


43 


rest of his days. In the reign of Ahaz, his grandson, Jerusalem was be¬ 
sieged by the kings of Israel and Syria, who carried away from Judah two 
hundred thousand captives. Ahaz invoked the aid of Tiglath-pileser, king 
of Assyria, and became his tributary. The Assyrian conquered Damascus, 
and thus relieved Jerusalem. Ahaz filled the cities of Judah with altars 
of false gods, and left his kingdom more deeply stained than ever with 
idolatry. 

107 . Hezekiah, his son, delivered the land from foreign dominion and 
from heathen superstitions. He became for a time tributary to Sennach¬ 
erib, but afterward revolted and made an alliance with Egypt. During a 
second invasion, the army of Sennacherib was destroyed and his designs 
abandoned; but the kingdom of Judah continued to be dependent upon 
the empire. 

108 . Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah, brought back all the evil which 
his father had expelled. Even the temple at Jerusalem was profaned by 
idols and their altars, and the Law disappeared from the sight and memory 
of the people, while those who tried to remain faithful to the God of their 
fathers were violently persecuted. In the midst of this impiety, Manasseh 
fell into disgrace with the Assyrian king, who suspected him of an inten¬ 
tion to revolt. He was carried captive to Babylon, where he had leisure to 
reflect upon his sins and their punishment. On his return to Jerusalem,, 
he confessed and forsook his errors, and wrought a religious reformation in 
his kingdom. 

100 . His son Anion restored idolatry ; but his life and reign were speedily 
ended by a conspiracy of his servants, who slew him in his own house. 

The assassins were punished with death, and Josiah, the rightful heir, 
ascended the throne at the age of eight years. He devoted himself with 
pious zeal and energy to the cleansing of his kingdom from the traces of 
heathen worship; carved and molten images and altars were ground to 
powder and strewn over the graves of those who had officiated in the sacri¬ 
legious rites. The king journeyed in person not only through the cities of 
Judah, but through the whole desolate land of Israel, as far as the borders 
of Naphtali and the upper waters of the Jordan, that he might witness the 
extermination of idolatry. This part of his work being completed, he re¬ 
turned to Jerusalem to repair the Temple of Solomon, which had fallen into 
ruins, and restore, in all its original solemnity, the worship of Jehovah. 

110 . In the progress of repairs an inestimable manuscript was found, being 
no less than the “ Book of the Law of the Lord, given by the hand of Moses.” 
These sacred writings had been so long lost, that even the king and the 
priests were ignorant of the curses that had been pronounced upon idolatry. 
The tender conscience of the king was overwhelmed with distress as he read 
the pure and perfect Law, which presented so stern a contrast with the 
morals of the people; but he was comforted with the promise that he should 


44 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


be gathered to his grave in peace before the calamities which the Law fore¬ 
told, and the sins of Judah had deserved, should come upon the kingdom. 
In the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign a grand passover was held, to 
which all the inhabitants of the northern kingdom who remained from the 
captivity were invited. This great religious festival, which signalized the 
birth of the nation and its first deliverance, had not been kept with equal 
solemnity since the days of Samuel the prophet. The entire manuscript 
lately discovered was read aloud by the king himself in the hearing of all 
the people, and the whole assembly swore to renew and maintain the cove¬ 
nant made of old with their fathers. 

111. The end of Josiah’s reign was marked by two great calamities. A 

„ ™ wild horde of Scythians* from the northern steppes, swept 

B.C. 6o4-oo2. * 1 

over the land, carrying off flocks and herds. They advanced 
as far as As / calon, on the south-western coast, where they plundered the 
temple of Astarte, and were then induced to retire by the bribes of the king 
of Egypt. One trace of their incursion remained a thousand years, in the 
new name of the old city Bethshan, on the plain of Esdrae'lon. It was 
named by the Greeks Scythopolis, or the city of the Scythians. This was 
the first eruption of northern barbarians upon the old and civilized nations 
of southern Asia and Europe. Later events in the same series will occupy 
a large portion of our history. 

112 . The other and greater calamity of Josiah’s reign arose from a dif¬ 
ferent quarter. Necho, king of Egypt, had become alarmed by the growth 
of Babylonian power, and was marching northward with a great army. 
Though in no way the object of his hostility, Josiah imprudently went 
forth to meet him, hoping to arrest his progress in the plain of Esdraelon. 

The battle of Megid / do followed, and Josiah was slain. 

. Never had so great a sorrow befallen the Jewish people. 
The prophet Jeremiah, a friend and companion of Josiah from his youth, 
bewailed the nation’s loss in his most bitter “Lamentation”: “The breath 
of our nostrils, the anointed of the Lord, was taken in their pits, of whom 
we said, Under his shadow we shall live among the heathen.” For more 
than a hundred years the anniversary of the fatal day was observed as a 


B. C. 609. 


time of mourning in every family. 

113 . In the reign ot Jehoiakim, son ot Josiah, Nebuchadnezzar, prince 
of Babylon, gained a great victory f over Necho, and extended his father’s 
kingdom to the frontier of Egypt. Jehoiakim submitted to be absorbed 
into the empire, but afterward revolted and was put to death. 

Jehoiachin, his son, was made king; but, three months after his ac¬ 
cession, was carried captive to Babylon. Zedeki'ah, reigning at Jerusalem, 


* See § 40, p. 23. 

t The battle of Carchemish. See p. 25. 


r 



RECAPITULA T10N. 


45 


rebelled and allied himself with Apries, king of Egypt. Upon this, the 
ever active Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to the revolted city. In the second 
year it was taken and destroyed; the king and the whole nation, with the 
treasures of the temple and palace, were conveyed to Babylon, and the 
history of the Jews ceased for seventy years. 


Kings of Judah. 

Rehoboam,.B. C. 975-958. 

Abijam,. “ 958-956. 

Asa,. “ 956-916. 

Jehoshapliat,. “ 916-892. 

Jehoram,. “ 892-885. 

Ahaziali, slain by Jehu after 1 year,. “ 885-884. 

Athaliah, murders her grandchildren and reigns, “ 884-878. 

Joasli, son of Ahaziah,. “ 878-838. 

Amaziah,. “ 838-809. 

Azariah, or Uzziah,. “ 809-757. 

Jotham,. “ 757-742. 

Ahaz,. “ 742-726. 

Hezekiah,. “ 726-697. 

Manasseh,. “ 697-642. 

Amon,. “ 642-640. 

Josiah,. “ 640-609. 

Jehoahaz, dethroned by Necho after 3 months, . “ 609. 

Jehoiakim, tributary to Necho 4 years, .... “ 609-598. 

Jehoiachin,. “ 598-597. 

Zedekiah,. “ 597-586. 


recapitulation. 

The Phrygians, earliest settlers of Asia Minor, were active in tillage and trade, 
and zealous in their peculiar religion. Lydia afterward became the chief power 
in the peninsula. At the end of three dynasties, it had reached its greatest glory 
under Croesus, when it was conquered by Cyrus, and became a province of Persia, 
B. C. 546. 

The first great commercial communities in the world were the Phoenician cities, 
of which Sidon and Tyre were the chief; their trade extending by sea from Britain 
to Ceylon, and by land to the interior of three continents. Tyrian dyes, and vessels 
of gold, silver, bronze, and glass were celebrated. Phoenicia was subject four hun¬ 
dred years to the Assyrian Empire, and became independent at its fall, only to pass 
under the power of Necho of Egypt, and, in turn, to be subdued by Nebuchadnezzar 
of Babylon. Baal, Astarte, Melearth, and the marine deities were objects of Phoe¬ 
nician worship. 

Syria Proper was divided into five states, of which Damascus was the oldest and 
most important. 

The Hebrew nation began its existence under the rule of Moses, who led his 
people forth from Egypt, and through the Arabian Desert, in a journey of forty 


















46 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


years. Joshua conquered Palestine by the two decisive battles of Beth-horon and 
the waters of Meroin, and divided the land among the twelve tribes. Judges ruled 
Israel nearly six hundred years. 

Saul, being anointed as king, subdued the enemies of the Jews; but, becoming- 
disobedient, he was slain in battle, and David became king, first of Judah, and 
afterward of all Israel. He made Jerusalem his capital, and extended his dominion 
over Syria and Moab, and eastward to the Euphrates. His sacred songs are the 
source of his enduring fame. Solomon inherited the kingdom, which he enriched 
by commerce and adorned with magnificent public works, both for sacred and 
secular uses. The Dedication of the Temple is the great era in Hebrew chronology. 
The wisdom of Solomon was widely famed, but the luxury of his court exhausted 
his kingdom, and on the accession of Rehoboam ten tribes revolted, only Judah 
and Benjamin remaining to the house of David. 

Jeroboam fixed his capital at Sliechem, and the shrines of his false gods at 
Bethel and Dan. In spite of the faithful warnings of the prophets, the kingdom 
of Israel became idolatrous. The nineteen kings who ruled B. C. 975-721 belonged 
to nine different families. Aliab and Jezebel persecuted true believers and estab¬ 
lished Tyrian idolatry; but their race was exterminated and Jehu became king. 
The Ten Tribes reached their greatest power and wealth under Jeroboam II. In 
the reign of Menahem they became subject to Pul, of Chaldsea. A revolt of Hoshea 
against Assyria led to the capture of Samaria, and the captivity of both king and 
people. 

The kingdom of Judah, with a smaller territory, had a people more united in 
faith and loyalty, and was ruled four hundred years by descendants of David. 
Jelioshaphat made a close alliance with Ahab, which brought many calamities 
upon Judah. In the reign of Jelioram, Jerusalem was taken by Arabs and Philis¬ 
tines; and after the death of Ahaziah, Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel, usurped the 
throne. Joash, her grandson, was protected and crowned by Jelioiada, the high 
priest. The prosperity of Judah was restored by the conquests and efficient policy 
of Azariah. Ahaz became tributary to Tiglath-pileser, of Assyria, and degraded 
his kingdom with idolatry. Hezekiah resisted both the religion and the supremacy 
of the heathen. Manasseh was carried captive to Babylon, and on his return re¬ 
formed his administration. Josiah cleansed the land from marks of idolatry, 
rebuilt the Temple, discovered the Book of the Law, and renewed the celebration 
of the Passover. The Scythians invaded Palestine. Josiah was slain in the battle 
of Megiddo, and his sons became vassals of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar subdued both 
Egypt and Palestine, captured Jerusalem, and transported two successive kings 
and the mass of the people to Babylon. 


QTJESTIOIN'S FOR REVIEW. 

Book I. — Part I. 

1. What are the sources of historical information ?. 1 - 4 . 

2. Describe the character and movements of the three families of the sons 

ol Noah.•.5, 6 . 

3. Into what periods may history be divided ?.7 f 8 . 

4. Name six primeval monarchies in Western Asia. 

5. What were the distinguishing features of the Chaldsean Monarchy ? . 26. 

6 . Name the principal Assyrian kings of the Second Period. . . . 29-31. 

7. Who was Semiramis?. 30 . 

8 . Describe the founder of the Lower Assyrian Empire. .... 32. 

9. What memorials exist of Sargon ?.32. 

10. Describe the career of Sennacherib. 33 . 


r 








QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW. 


47 


11 . What was the condition of Assyria under Asshur-bani-pal ? . . . g 34. 

12. What under his son?. 35 

13. What was the early history of Media?. 37 38 . 

14. What of Phraortes ?. 39 

15. Describe the reign of Cyaxares. . 40 , 41. 

16. The character of the Babylonians. 43 , 44 . 

17. The career of Merodach-baladan. 45 . 

18. The empire of Nabopolassar. 4 ^ 

16* The conquests and reverses of the greatest Babylonian mon¬ 
arch. . 47 - 52 . 

20. The decline and fall of Babylon. 53 , 54 . 

21. Relate the whole history of Lydia.58, 59 . 

22. Describe the Phoenician cities and their commerce.61-64. 

23. To what four kingdoms were they successively subject? .... 66-68. 

24. Describe the religion of the Phoenicians. . •. 69, 70. 

25. What were the divisions of Syria Proper?.71, 72. 

26. Describe the rise of the Jewish nation. 73, 74 . 

27. Their conquest of Palestine. 76, 77 . 

28. Their government during the First Period.80. 

29. The reign of Saul.81-83. 

30. The conquests and character of David. 84-89. 

31. The acts and wisdom of Solomon. 90-94. 

32. What changes occurred at his death ?.95. 

33. Compare the two kingdoms.. 96-100, 105,106. 

34. What was the policy of Jeroboam ?. 97, 98. 

35. Describe the reign of Ahab.101. 

36. What kings of Israel had dealing with Assyria?.100, 101, 

37. Mention three kings of Judah who had wars with Israel. . . . 104. 

38. Three in alliance with Israel.105. 

39. Describe the reign of Azariali; of Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh. . . 106-108. 

40. The events of Josiah’s reign.109-112. 

41. The relations of three kings with Babylon, ..... 113. 


Note.— A discrepancy will be found between the Egyptian and the Hebrew chro¬ 
nology. The latter, before the accession of Saul, is mainly conjectural; as it is possi¬ 
ble that two or more judges were reigning at the same time in different parts of the 
land. The periods of the several judges and of foreign servitude on p. 36, are copied 
literally from the Bible ; the times of inter regnum are conjectured, but probably fall 
below rather than exceed the truth. If continuous, these periods added together 
make 535 years,—a longer interval than can be found between the reign of Meneph- 
thah and that of Saul (§§ 79 and 154.) It may here be said that many historians be¬ 
lieve the “ Pharaoh’s daughter ” who rescued Moses to have been Mesphra or Amen- 
set (g 146.) In this case, Thothmes IV was the Pharaoh of the Exodus, and we gain 
nearly 200years for the transitional period of the Hebrews. 

It may be hoped that Egyptian MSS. now in the hands of diligent and accom¬ 
plished scholars will soon throw light on this interesting question. 



















48 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


PART II. AFRICAN NATIONS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF AFRICA. 

114. The continent of Africa differs in many important respects from 
that of Asia. The latter, extending into three zones, has its greatest 
extent in the most favored of all, the North Temperate. Africa is almost 
wholly within the tropics, only a small portion of its northern and south¬ 
ern extremities entering the two temperate zones, where their climate is 
most nearly torrid. Asia has the loftiest mountains on the globe, from 
which flow great rivers spreading fertility and affording every means of 
navigation. Africa has but two great rivers, the Nile and the Niger, and 
but few mountains of remarkable elevation. 

llo. Africa is thus the hottest, driest, and least accessible of the conti¬ 
nents. One-fifth of its surface is covered by the great sea of sand which 
stretches from the Atlantic nearly to the Red Sea. Much of the interior 
consists of marshes and impenetrable forests, haunted only by wild beasts 
and unfit for human habitation. With the exception of a very few fa¬ 
vored portions, Africa is therefore unsuited to the growth of great states; 
and it is only through two of these, Egypt and Carthage, that it claims an 
important part in ancient history. 

116. Northern Africa alone was known to the ancients, and its 
features were well marked and peculiar. Close along the Mediterranean 
lay a narrow strip of fertile land, watered by short streams which descended 
from the Atlas range. These mountains formed a rocky and scantily in- 

, habited region to the southward, though producing in certain portions 
abundance of dates. Next came the Great Desert, varied only by a few 
small and scattered oases, where springs of water nourished a rich vegeta¬ 
tion. South of the Sahara was a fertile inland country, near whose large 
rivers and lakes were cities and a numerous population ; but these central 
African states were only visited by an occasional caravan which crossed 
the desert from the north, and had no political connection with the rest 
of the world. 

117. In the western portion of Northern Africa, the mountains rise 
more gradually by a series of natural terraces from the sea, apd the fertile 
country here attains a width of two hundred miles. This well watered, 
fruitful, and comparatively healthful region, is one of the most favored on 
the globe. In ancient times it was one vast corn-field* from the Atlas to 
the Mediterranean. Here the native kingdom of Mauritania flourished; 


( 


GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF AFRICA. 


49 


and after it was subdued by the Romans, the same fertile fields afforded 
bread to the rest of the civilized world. 

118 . Eastward from Mauritania the plain becomes narrower, the rivers 
fewer, and the soil less fertile, so that no great state, even if it had 
originated there, could have long maintained itself. The north-eastern 
corner of the continent, however, is the richest and most valuable of all 
the lands it contains. This is owing to the great river which, rising in 
the highlands of Abyssii/ia, and fed by the perpetual rains of Equatorial 
Africa, rolls its vast body of waters from south to north, through a valley 
three thousand miles in length. Every year in June it begins to rise; 
from August to December it overflows the country, and deposits a soil 
so rich that the farmer has only to cast his grain upon the retiring waters, 
and abundant harvests spring up without further tillage. 

119 . The soil of Egypt was called by its inhabitants the “Gift of the 
Nile.” In a climate almost without rain, this country without its river 
would, indeed, have been only a ravine in the rocky and sandy desert; as 
barren as Sahara itself. The prosperity of the year was, from the earliest 
times, accurately measured by the Kilometers at Men/phis and ElephaiT- 
tine. If the water rose less than eighteen feet, famine ensued; a rise of 
from eighteen to twenty-four feet betokened moderate harvests; twenty- 
seven feet were considered “a good Nile;” a flood of thirty feet was ruin¬ 
ous, for, in such a case, houses were undermined, cattle swept away, the 
land rendered too spongy for the following seed-time, the labor of the 
farmer was delayed, and often fevers were bred by the stagnant and lin¬ 
gering waters. Usually, however, the Nile was the great benefactor of the 
Egyptians, and was considered a fit emblem of the creating and preserving 
OsiTis. Its waters were carefully distributed by canals and regulated by 
dykes. During the inundation, the country appeared like a great inland 
lake girdled by mountains. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, was compared by 
Herodotus to the Grecian Archipelago, dotted with villages which appeared 
like white islands above the expanse of waters. 

120 . Lower Egypt is a vast plain; Upper Egypt a narrowing valley. 
The fertile portion of the latter occupies only a part of the space between 
the Libyan Desert and the sea. In its widest part it is less than eleven, in 
its narrowest only five miles in width ; and in some places the granite or 
limestone cliff springs directly from the river. Being so well fitted t<> 
support a numerous people, the whole valley of the Nile, through Nubia 
and Abyssinia as well as Egypt, was very early colonized from the opposite 
shores of Asia. The hair, features, and form of the skull represented in 
the human figures on the monuments, prove the dominant lace in these 
countries to have been of the same great family with the people on the 
neighboring peninsula of Arabia. 

121 . Before the conquests of the Persians, Northern Africa was divided 

A. H.—4 


50 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


between five nations: the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, Libyans, 
and Greeks. 

122 . The Ethiopians occupied the Nile Valley above Egypt, including 
what is now known as Abyssinia. The great plateau between the head¬ 
waters of the Nile and the Red Sea is rendered fertile by frequent and 
abundant rains; and the many streams which descend from it to the Nile 
cause in part the yearly overflow which fertilizes Egypt. Mer'oe was the 
chief city of the Ethiopians. Some learned men have supposed its monu¬ 
ments of architecture and sculpture to be even older than those of Egypt. 

123 . Arabian traditions say that the inhabitants of the northern coasts 
of Africa were descendants of the Canaauites whom the Children of Israel 
drove out of Palestine. As late as the fourth century after Christ, two 
pillars of white marble near Tangier still bore the inscription in Phoenician 
characters: “We are they that fled from before the face of the robber 
Joshua, the son of Nun.” Whether or not this legend expressed a histor¬ 
ical fact, it expressed the wide-spread belief of the people; and it is well 
known by other evidence that the African coasts of the Mediterranean 
were very early dotted with Phoenician settlements, such as the two 
Hip / pos, U'tica, Tu / nes, Hadrume'tum, Lep'tis, and greatest of all, though 
among the latest, Carthage. 

124 . The Libyans occupied a greater portion of Northern Africa than 
any other nation, extending from the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean, 
and from the Great Desert, with the exception of the foreign settlements on 
the coast, to the Mediterranean Sea. They had, however, comparatively 
little power, consisting chiefly as they did of wandering tribes, destitute 
of settled government or fixed habitations. In the western and more 
fertile portion, certain tribes of Libyans cultivated the soil and became 
more nearly civilized; but these were soon subjected to the growing power 
of the Phoenician colonies. 

125 . The Greeks possessed a colony on that point of Northern Africa 
which approached most nearly to their own peninsula. They founded 
Cyrehie about B. C. 630, and Barca about seventy years later. They had 
also a colony at Naucra'tis in Egypt, and probably upon the greater oasis. 
The history of these Grecian settlements will be found in Book I IT. 


HISTORY OF EGYPT. 

Periods. 

I. The Old Empire, from earliest times to B. C. 1900. 

II. Middle Empire, or that of the Shepherd Kings, “ 1900-1525. 

III. The New Empire, “ 1525-525. 

126 . From the island of Elephantine to the sea, a distance of 526 miles 


r 


HISTORY OF EGYPT. 


51 


the Nile Valley was occupied by Egypt, a monarchy the most ancient, 
with a history among the most wonderful in the world. While other 
nations may be watched in their progress from ignorance and rudeness to 
whatever art they have possessed, Egypt appears in the earliest morning 
light of history “ already skillful, erudite, and strong.” Some of her 
buildings are older than the Migration of Abraham, but the oldest of them 
show a skill in the quarrying, transporting, carving, and joining of stone 
which modern architects admire but can not surpass. 

127 . First Period. The early Egyptians believed that there had been 
a time when their ancestors were savages and cannibals, dwelling in caves 
in those ridges of sandstone which border the Nile Valley on the east; 
and that their greatest benefactors were Osiris and Isis, who elevated them 
into a devout and civilized nation, eating bread, drinking wine and beer, 
and planting the olive. The worship of Osiris and Isis, therefore, became 
prevalent throughout Egypt, while the several cities and provinces had 
each its own local divinities. According to Manetho, a native historian 
of later times,* gods, spirits, demigods, and manes, or the souls of men, 
were the first rulers of Egypt. This is merely an ancient way of saying 
that the earliest history of Egypt, as of most other countries, is shrouded 
in ignorance and fabulous conjecture. 

128 . Instead of commencing its existence as a united kingdom, Egypt 
consisted at first of a number of scattered nomes, or petty states, each 
having for its nucleus a temple and a numerous establishment of priests. 
Fifty-three of these nomes are mentioned by one historian, thirty-six by 
another. As one became more powerful, it sometimes swallowed up its 
neighbors, and grew into a kingdom which embraced a large portion or 
even the whole of the country. 

129 . The first mortal king of Mis'raim, the “double land,” was Menes, 
of This. His inheritance was in Upper Egypt, but by his talents and 
exploits he made himself master of the Lower, and selected there a site 
for his new capital. For this purpose he drained a marshy tract which at 
certain seasons had been overflowed by the Nile, made a dyke to confine 
the river within its regular channel, and on the reclaimed ground built 
the city of Memphis. Menes may therefore be considered as the founder 
of the empire. 

130 . Athothes (Thoth), his son and successor, was skilled in medicine 
and wrote works on anatomy. Of the six following kings in regular 
descent who form this dynasty little is known, and it is even possible that 
they belong rather to tradition than to ascertained history. After the two 
Thoths came Mnevis, or IJenephes, who bore the name of the Sacred Calf 
of Heliopolis. He is said, nevertheless, to have been a high-minded, in- 


* He lived in the reign of Ptolemy I, B. C. 323-283. 



52 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


telligent man, and the most affable prince on record. He built the pyramid 
of Koko'me, whose site can not now be identified. During his reign there 
was famine in Egypt. 

181. The Third Dynasty reigned at Memphis ; its founder was Sesor- 
cheres the Giant. The third king, Sesonchosis, was a wise and peaceful 
monarch, who advanced the three arts of writing, medicine, and archi¬ 
tecture, and was celebrated by a grateful people in hymns and ballads as 
among their greatest benefactors. He introduced the fashion of building 
with hewn stones, previous structures having been made either of rough, 
irregular stones or of brick. He was known to the Greeks as the 
“peaceful Sesostris,” while the two later monarch's who bore this name 
were great warriors and conquerors 

182. His son, Sasycuis (Mares-sesorcheres), was a celebrated law-giver. 
He is said to have organized the worship of the gods, and to have invented 
geometry and astronomy. He also made that singular law by which a 
debtor might give his father’s mummy as security for a debt. If the 
money was not paid, neither the debtor nor his father could ever rest 
in the family sepulcher, and this was considered the greatest possible 
disgrace. 

133. The monumental and more certain history begins with the Second, 

fi Fourth, and Fifth Dynasties of Manetho, which reigned 

simultaneously in Lower, Middle, and Upper Egypt. Of 
these the Fourth Dynasty, reigning at Memphis, was most powerful, 
the others being in some degree dependent. Proofs of its greatness are 
found in the vast structures of stone which overspread Middle Egypt 
between the Libyan Mountains and the Nile; for the Fourth Dynasty 
may be remembered as that of the pyramid-builders. 

134. The name of Soris, the first of the family, has been found upon 
the northern pyramid of Abousir. Suphis I, or Shufu, was the Cheops 
of Herodotus, and is regarded as the builder of the Great Pyramid. His 
brother, Suphis II, or Nou-sbufu, had part in this work. He reigned 
jointly with Suphis I, and alone, after his death, for three years. These 
two kings were oppressors of the people and despisers of the gods. They 
crushed the former by the severe toils involved in their public works, 
and ordered the temples of the latter to be closed and their worship to 
cease. 

135. Mencheres the Holy, son of Suphis I, had, like his father, a reign 
of sixtv-three years, but differed from him in being a good and humane 
sovereign. He re-opened the temples which his father had closed, restored 
religious ceremonies of sacrifice and praise, and put an end to the op¬ 
pressive labors. He was therefore much venerated by the people, and 
was the subject of many ballads and hymns. The four remaining kings 
of the Fourth Dynasty are known to us only by names and dates. The 


f 


HISTORY OF EGYPT. 


53 


family included eight kings in all, and the probable aggregate of their 
reigns is 220 years. 

130. The kings of the Second Dynasty ruling Middle Egypt from This 
or Abydus, and those of the Fifth ruling Upper Egypt from the Isle of 
Elephantine, were probably related by blood to the powerful sovereigns 
ot Lower Egypt, and the tombs of all three families are found in the 
neighborhood of Memphis. The structure of the Pyramids shows great 
advancement in science and the mechanical arts. Each is placed so as 
exactly to face the cardinal points, and the Great Pyramid is precisely 
upon the 30th parallel of latitude. The wonderful accuracy of the latter 
in its astronomical adjustments, has led a few profound scholars* of the 
present day to believe that it could only have been built by Divine revela¬ 
tion ; not by the Egyptians, but by a people led from Asia for the purpose, 
the object being to establish a perfectly trustworthy system of weights 
and measures. 

137. The Arabian copper-mines of the Sinaitic peninsula were worked 
under the direction of the Pyramid kings. At this period the arts had 
reached their highest perfection. Drawing, f sculpture, and writing, as 
well as modes of living and general civilization, were much the same as 
fifteen centuries later. 

13S. B. C. 2220. While a sixth royal family succeeded the pyramid- 
builders at Memphis, the second and fifth continued to reign at This and 
Elephantis, while two more arose at Heracleop'olis and Thebes; so that 
Egypt was now divided into five separate kingdoms, the Theban becoming 
gradually the most powerful. Thus weakened by division, and perhaps 
exhausted by the great architectural works which had withdrawn the 
people from the practice of arms, the country easily became the prey of 
nomad tribes from the neighboring regions of Syria and Arabia. These 
were called Hyk'sos, or Shepherd Kings. They entered Lower Egypt 
from the north-east, and soon became masters of the country from Mem¬ 
phis to the sea. 

139. Second Period. B. C. 1900-1525. Native dynasties continued 
for a time to reign in Middle and Upper Egypt; and even in the 
heart of the Delta a new kingdom sprang up at Xo / is, which maintained 
itself during the whole time that the Shepherds were in the land. A large 
number of the enslaved Egyptians continued to cultivate the soil, paying 
tribute to the conquerors; and, in time, the example of their good order 
may have mollified the fierce invaders. The latter built themselves a 
strongly fortified camp, AvaTis, in the eastern portion of the Delta, near 
the later city of Pelusium. 

* See “Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid,” by Prof. Piazzi Smyth. 

t See H 187. 



54 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


140 . At the same period with the invasion, a Twelfth Egyptian 
Dynasty, the Osortasidse, arose at Thebes, and became one of the most 
powerful tribes of native rulers. They obtained paramount authority 
over the kingdoms of Elephantine and Heracleopolis, held the Sinaitic 
Peninsula, and extended their victorious arms into Arabia and Ethi¬ 
opia. Sesortasen I ruled all Upper Egypt. Under the second and third 
sovereigns of that name the kingdom reached its highest prosperity. 
The third Sesortasen enriched the country by many canals, and left 
monuments of his power at Senneh, near the southern border of the 
empire, which still excite the wonder of travelers. The largest edifice 
and the most useful work in Egypt were executed by his successor, Am- 
menemes III. The first was the Labyrinth in the Faioom, which Herod¬ 
otus visited, and declared that it surpassed all human works. It contained 
three thousand rooms; fifteen hundred of these were under ground, and 
contained the mummies of kings and of the sacred crocodiles. The walls 
of the fifteen hundred upper apartments were of solid stone, entirely cov¬ 
ered with sculpture. The other work of Ammenemes was the Lake 
Moeris. This was a natural reservoir formed near a bend of the Nile; 
but he so improved it by art as to retain and carefully distribute the gifts 
of the river, and thus insure the fruitfulness of the province. 

141 . A weaker race succeeded, and the calamities of Lower Egypt 
were now extended throughout the land. The Hyksos advanced to the 
southward, and the fugitive kings of Thebes sought refuge in Ethi¬ 
opia. With the exception of the Xoites, intrenched in the marshes 
of the Delta, all Egypt became for a time subject to the Shepherds. 
They burned cities, destroyed temples, and made slaves of all the people 
whom they did not put to death. Two native dynasties reigned at 
Memphis, and one at Heracleopolis, but they were tributary to the 
conquerors. 

142 . Some have supposed that the Pyramids were erected by these 
Shepherd Kings. But the best authorities describe the race as rude,, 
ignorant, and destitute of arts, as compared with the Egyptians, either 
before or after their invasion; and after the long deluge of barbarism 
was swept back, we find religion, language, and art—kept, doubtless, and 
cultivated in seclusion by the learned class — precisely as they were before 
the interruption. The absence of records during this period would alone 
prove the lack of learning in the ruling race. Baron Bunsen supposes 
the Hyksos to have been identical with the Philistines of Palestine. 
Some of them took refuge in Crete when they were driven out of Egypt,, 
and re-appeared in Palestine from the west about the same time that the- 
Israelites entered it from the east. In any case, a gap of nearly four 
hundred years occurs in Egyptian history between the old and the new 
empires, during which the Holy City of Thebes was in the hands of bar- 


HISTORY OF EGYPT. 


55 

barians, the annals ceased, and the names of the kings, either native or 
foreign, are for the most part unknown. 

143 . Third Period. B. C. 1525-525. After their long humiliation, 
the people of Egypt rallied for a great national revolt, under the Theban 
king Amo'sis, and drove the invaders, after a hard-fought contest, from 
their soil. Now came the brightest period of Egyptian history. Amosis 
was rewarded with the undivided sovereignty, and became the founder of 
the Eighteenth Dynasty. Memphis was made the imperial capital. Many 
temples were repaired, as we may learn from memoranda preserved in the 
quarries of Syene and the Upper Nile. Aahmes, the wife of Amosis, bears 
the surname Nefru-ari, “ the good, glorious woman/’ and seems to have 
been held in the highest honor ever ascribed to a queen. She was a 
Theban princess of Ethiopian blood, and probably had many provinces 
for her dowry. Amosis died B. C. 1499. 

144 . For eight hundred years Egypt continued a single, consolidated 
kingdom. During this time art obtained its highest perfection; the great 
temple-palaces of Thebes were built; numerous obelisks, “fingers of the 
sun,” pointed heavenward; and the people, who had long groaned under 
a cruel servitude, enjoyed, under the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twen¬ 
tieth Dynasties, the protection of a mild and well-organized government. 

145 . It may be feared that the Egyptians wreaked upon a captive 
nation within their own borders their resentment against their late op¬ 
pressors. The Hebrews grew and multiplied in Egypt, and their lives 
were made bitter with hard bondage. Many of the vast brick construc¬ 
tions of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties may have been erected 
by the captive Hebrews, who are expressly said to have built the two 
treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses. 

140 . Royal women were treated with higher respect in Egypt than in 
any other ancient monarchy. Thothmes I, the third king of the Eighteenth 
Dynasty, was succeeded by his daughter, Mesphra or Amen-set, who reigned 
as regent for her younger brother, Thothmes ll. He died a minor, and she 
held the same office, or, perhaps, reigned jointly with her next younger 
brother, Thothmes III; but not with his cordial consent, for when she, too, 
died, after a regency of twenty-two years, he caused her name and image 
to be effaced from all the sculptures in which they had appeared together. 

147 . B. C. 1461-1414. This king, Thothmes HI, is distinguished not 
more for his foreign wars than for the magnificent palaces and temples 
which he built at Karnac, Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, Coptos, and other 
places. Hardly an ancient city in Egypt or Nubia is unmarked by remains 
of his edifices. The history of his twelve successive campaigns is recorded 
in sculpture upon the walls of his palace at Thebes. He drove the Hyksos 
from their last stronghold, Ava'ris, where they had been shut up since the 
days of his father. The two obelisks near Alexandria, which some Roman 


56 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


wit called Cleopa'tra’s Needles, bear the name of this king. His military 
expeditions extended both to the north and south; inscriptions on his 
monuments, declare that he took tribute from Nineveh, Hit (or Is), and 
Babylon. 

148. His grandson, Thothmes IV, caused the carving of the great Sphinx 
near the Pyramids. Amunoph III, his successor, was a ^reat 
and powerful monarch. He adorned the country by magnifi¬ 
cent buildings, and improved its agriculture by the construction of tanks 
or reservoirs to regulate irrigation. The two Colossi near Thebes, one of 
which is known as the vocal Memnon, date from his reign ; but the Amen- 
ophe'um, of which they were ornaments, is now in ruins. Amunoph 
maintained the warlike fame of his ancestors by expeditions into all the 
countries invaded by Thothmes III. He is styled upon his monuments, 
“ Pacificator of Egypt and Tamer of the Libyan Shepherds.” He built 
the gorgeous palace of Luxor, which he connected with the temple at 
Karnac by an avenue of a thousand sphinxes. He made a similar avenue 
also at Thebes, lined with colossal sitting statues of the cat-headed goddess 
Paslit (Bubastis). 

140 . B. C. 1364-1327. In the reign of Plorus, his son, the nation was 
distracted by many claimants for the crown, most of whom were princes 
or princesses of the blood royal. Horns outlived his rivals and destroyed 
their monuments. • He had successful foreign wars in Africa, and made 
p, C is2” it >4 additions to the palaces at Karnac and Luxor. With the 
next king, Rathotis (or Resitot), the Eighteenth Dynasty 

ended. 

150 . B. C. 1324-1322. Raineses I, founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty, 
was descended from the first two kings of the eighteenth. His son, Seti, 
inherited all the national hatred toward the Syrian invaders, and “avenged 
the shame of Egypt on Asia.” He reconquered Syria, which had revolted 
some forty years earlier, and carried his victorious arms as far as the bor¬ 
ders of Cilicia and the banks of the Euphrates. He built the great Hall 
at Karnac — in which the whole Cathedral of Notre Dame, at Paris, could 
stand without touching either walls or ceiling — and his tomb is the most 
beautiful of all the sepulchers of the kings. 

151. B. C. 1311-1245. Rameses II, the Great, reigned sixty-six years; 
and his achievements in war and peace fill a large space in the records 
of his time, in which fact and fiction are often intermingled by his 
flatterers. During his father’s life-time, he began his military career 
by subduing both Libya and Arabia. His ambition being thus inflamed, 
he had no sooner succeeded to the throne than he resolved upon the 
conquest of the world. He provided for the security of his kingdom 
during his absence, by re-dividing the country into thirty-six nomes 
and appointing a governor for each. He then equipped an immense 


I 






FIGURE OF AMUNOPH III, NEAR THEBES. 

Called by (he Greeks the Vocal Memnon. It was 47 feet in height , or feet including the pedestal. 


To faee p 


r 






















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































HISTORY OF• EGYPT. 


57 


army, which is said to have included 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 
27,000 war chariots. Having conquered Ethiopia, Raineses made a tieet 
of four hundred vessels, the first which any Egyptian king had possessed, 
and sailing down the Red Sea to the Arabian, continued his voyage 
as far as India. He returned only to make fresh preparations, and lead 
another great army eastward beyond the Ganges, and onward till he 
reached a new ocean. Columns were every-where erected recording the 
victories of the monarch, and lauding the courage or shaming the coward¬ 
ice of those who had encountered him. 

152 . Returning from his Asiatic conquests, Raineses entered Europe 
and subdued the Thracians; then, after nine years absence, during which 
he had covered himself with the glory of innumerable easy victories, he 
reentered Egypt. He brought with him a long train of captives, whom 
he intended to employ upon the architectural works which he had already 
projected. Among the most celebrated are the Rock Temples of Ipsambul, 
in Nubia, whose sides are covered with bas-reliefs representing the victories 
of Sesostris; the Ramessehim, or Memnonium, at Thebes; and additions 
to the palace at Karnac. He built, also, a wall near the eastern frontier 
of Egypt, from Pelusium to Heliopolis, and, perhaps, even as far as Syehie, 
to prevent future invasions from Arabia. More monuments exist of Rain¬ 
eses II than of any other Pharaoh; but the strength of the New Empire 
was exhausted by these extraordinary efforts in war and building. The 
king tormented both his subjects and his captives, using them merely as 
instruments of his passion for military and architectural display. It was 
this king who drove the Israelites to desperation by his inhuman oppres¬ 
sions, especially by commanding every male child to be drowned in the 
Nile. (Exodus i : 8-14, 22.) 

153 . In the great hall of Abydus, or This, Rameses is represented as 
offering sacrifice to fifty-two kings of his own race, he himself, in a glorified 
form, being of the number. The sculpture is explained by an inscription: 
“ A libation to the Lords of the West, by the offerings of their son, the king 
Rameses, in his abode.’’ The reply of the royal divinities is as follows: 
“ The speech of the Lords of the West, to their son the Creator and Avenger, 
the Lord of the World, the Sun who conquers in truth. We ourselves ele¬ 
vate our arms to receive thy offerings, and all other good and pure things 

n thy palace. We are renewed and perpetuated in the paintings of thy 
house,” etc. 

154. The son of Rameses II, Menephthah, or Amenephthes, was the 
Pharaoh of the Exodus. The escaping Israelites passed along the bank 
of the canal made by the Great King, and thus were supplied with water 
for their multitude both of men and beasts; By the dates always found 
upon Egyptian buildings, we learn that architectural labors ceased for 
twenty vears; and this contrast to the former activity affords an inferesting 


58 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


coincidence with the Scriptural narrative. Josephus,* also, quotes from 
Manetho a tradition, that the son of the great Raineses was overthrown by 
a revolt, under Osarsiph (Moses), of a race of lepers who had been griev¬ 
ously oppressed by him; and that he fled into Ethiopia with his son, then 
only five years old, who, thirteen years later, recovered the kingdom as 
Sethos II. To express their contempt for their former captives, the Egyp¬ 
tian historians always refer to the Israelites as lepers. With Seti, or 
Sethos II, the house of the great Rameses became extinct. 

155 . B. C. 1219. Rameses III, the first of the Twentieth Dynasty r 
maintained extensive wars, both by sea and land. His four sons all bore 
his name and came successively to the throne, but there are no great events 
to signalize their reigns. Six or seven kings of the same name followed, 
and the family ended about B. C. 1085. 

156 . During this period Egypt rapidly declined, as well in intellectual as 
military power. Her foreign enterprises ceased ; no additions were made 
to the magnificent buildings of former ages; and sculpture and painting, 
instead of deriving new life from the study of Nature, were compelled to 
copy the old set forms or confine themselves to dull and meaningless 
imitations. 

157. The Twenty-first Dynasty was a priestly race, whose capital was 
Ta / nis, or Zo / an, in Lower Egypt, but who were supreme throughout the 
country. They wore sacerdotal robes, and called themselves High Priests 
of Amun. One of them gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon. (1 
Kings iii: 1; ix: 16.) The seven kings of this dynasty had usually short 
reigns, marked by few events. B. C. 1085-990. 

158. B. C. 993-972. Sheshonk, or Shishak, the founder of the Twenty- 

second Dynasty, revived the military power of the nation. He married the 
daughter of Pisham II, the last king of the Tanite race, and took upon 
himself, also, the title of High Priest of Amun, but beyond this there are 
no signs of priesthood in this line. Bubastis, in the Delta, was the seat of 
his government. It was to him that Jerobo'am fled when plotting to make 
himself king of Israel; and Shishak afterward made an expedition against 
B c 972 Judaea for the purpose of confirming Jeroboam on his throne. 

He plundered Jerusalem and received the submission of Re- 
hoboam. Osorkon II, the fourth king of this dynasty, and an Ethiopian 
B c 956-933 P rince > was probably the Zerah of Scripture, who invaded 
Syria, and was defeated by Asa, king of Judah, in the battle 
of Mareshah. (2 Chron. xiv : 9-14.) 


* Josephus was a Jewish historian, born A. D. 37, the son of a priest, and de¬ 
scended by his mother’s side from the same royal family with the Herods. His 
greatest work is his “Jewish Antiquities,” in twenty books. The history begins 
at the Creation of the World, and ends A. D. 66, with the Revolt of the Jews 
against the Romans. 


f 



HISTORY OF EGYPT. 


59 


159. At the expiration of this line in the person of Takelot II, about B. C. 
847, a rival family sprang up at Tanis, forming the Twenty-third Dynasty. 
It comprised only four kings, none of whom were famous. B. C. 847-758. 

1(10. B. C. 758-714. • The Twenty-fourth Dynasty consisted of one king, 
Boccho / ris. He fixed the government at SaTs, another city of the Delta, 
and was widely famed for the wisdom and justice of his administration. 
In the latter half of this period, Sabaco, the Ethiopian, over- i _ 

ran the country and reduced the Suite monarch to a mere • 
vassal. Bocchoris, attempting to revolt, was captured and burned to death, 
after a reign of forty-four years. 

161. Sabaco I, having subdued Egypt, established the Twenty-fifth 
Dynasty. He fought with the king of Assyria for the dominion of west¬ 
ern Asia, but was defeated by Sargon in the battle of Raphia, B. C. 718. 
Assyrian influence became predominant in the Delta, while the power of 
the Ethiopian was undisturbed only in Upper Egypt. The second king 

of this family was also named Sabaco. The third and last, 

J ’ B. C. 690-665. 

TiUhakeh, was the greatest of the line. He maintained war 

successively with three Assyrian monarchs. The first, Sennacherib, was 

overthrown * B. C. 698. His son, Esarhaddon, was successful for a time 

in breaking Lower Egypt into a number of tributary provinces. Tirhakeh 

recovered his power and reunited his kingdom ; but after two years’ war 

with Asshur-bani-pal, the next king of Assyria, he was obliged to abdicate 

in favor of his son. The son was expelled, and Egypt was divided for 

thirty years into many petty kingdoms, which remained subject to Assyria 

until the death of the conqueror. 

162. For the Egyptians this was merely a change of foreign rulers. 
Their patriotism had long been declining, and their native army had lost 
its fame and valor from the time when the kings of the Twenty-second 
Dynasty intrusted the national defense to foreigners. The military caste 
became degraded, and the crown even attempted to deprive the soldiers of 
their lands. Egypt had become in some degree a naval power, and a com¬ 
mercial class had arisen to rival the soldiers and farmers. 

163. About 630 B. C., the Assyrians had to concentrate their forces at 
home in resistance to the Scythians; and PsammeUiclius, one of the native 
viceroys whom they had set up in Egypt, seized the opportunity to throw 
off their yoke. The great Assyrian Empire was now filling under the 
Median and Babylonian revolt, and its power ceased to be felt in distant 
provinces. Psammetichus gained victories over his brother viceroys, and 
established the Twenty-sixth Dynasty over all Egypt. He was an en¬ 
lightened monarch, and during his reign art and science received a new 
impulse. 


See g 33. 




GO 


ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 


104. Haying overcome the dodecarchy by means of his Greek and 
Tyrian auxiliaries, he settled these foreign troops in permanent camps, 
the latter near Memphis, the former near the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. 
His native soldiery were so incensed by being thus superseded by foreign 
mercenaries, that many deserted and took up their residence in Ethiopia. 
So many foreigners of all classes now flocked to the ports of Egypt, that 
a new caste of dragomans, or interpreters, arose. Psammetichus caused 
his own son to be instructed in Greek learning, a sure sign that the bar¬ 
riers which had hitherto separated the intellectual life of Egypt from the 
rest of the world were now broken down. 

165. Those northern barbarians who had terrified the Assyrians had 
now overrun Palestine and threatened an invasion of Egypt; but the 
messengers of Psammetichus met them at Ascalon with" bribes which 
induced them to return. 


166. B. C. 610-594. In the reign of Necho, son of Psammetichus, the 
navy and commerce of Egypt were greatly increased, and Africa was for 
the first time circumnavigated by an Egyptian fleet. This expedition 
sailed by way of the Red Sea. Twice the seamen landed, encamped, 
sowed grain, and waited for a harvest. Having reaped their crop, they 
again set sail, and in the third year arrived in Egypt by way of the Med¬ 
iterranean. The foreign conquests of Necho may even be compared with 
those of the great Raineses, for he enlarged his dominions by all the 
B c 60' country between Egypt and the Euphrates. But he met a 

stronger foe in Nebuchadnezzar, and when he fled from the 
field of Car'chemish all his Asiatic conquests fell into the hands of the 
great Babylonian. 


167. B. C. 588-569. His grandson, Apries, the Pharaoh-hophra of 
Scripture, resumed the warlike schemes of Necho. He besieged Sidon, 
fought a naval battle with Tyre, and made an unsuccessful alliance with 

, Zedekiah, king of Judah, against Nebuchadnezzar. He was 

B. C. 569-52d. 

deposed, and his successor, Ama'sis, held his crown at first 
as a tributary to the Babylonian. He afterward made himself independent; 
and many monuments throughout Egypt bear witness to his liberal encour¬ 
agement of the arts, while his foreign policy enriched the country. He was 
on friendly terms with Greece and her colonies, and many Greek merchants 
settled in Egypt. 

168. Alarmed by the increasing power of Persia, he sought to strengthen 
himself by alliances with Croesus of Lydia, and Polycrates of Samos. The 
precaution was ineffectual, but Amasis did not live to see the ruin of his 
country. Cambyses, king of Persia, was already on his march at the head 
of a great army, when Psammei/itus, son of Amasis, succeeded to the 
throne of Egypt. The new king hastened to meet the invader at Pelusium, 
but was defeated and compelled to shut himself up in Memphis, his capital, 


c 


RELIGION OF EGYPT. 


61 


where the Persians now advanced to besiege him. The city was taken and 
its king made captive, after a reign of only six months. A little later he 
was put to death; and the Kingdom of Egypt, after a thousand years of 
independent existence, became a mere province of the Persian Empire, 
B. C. 525. 

E-ECAPITULATIOIT. 

At a very early period Egypt was highly civilized, hut not united, for it con¬ 
sisted of many independent nomes governed by priests. Menes built Memphis, 
and founded the Empire of Upper and Lower Egypt, which was ruled by twenty- 
six dynasties before the Persian Conquest. Sesorcheres founded the Third Dy¬ 
nasty; Sesoncliosis patronized all the arts, and his son improved the laws and 
worship. The Fourth Dynasty built many pyramids, while the Second and Fifth 
reigned as dependents in This and Elephantine. Egypt was afterward divided 
into five kingdoms, and became subject to tlie Hyksos from Asia, who enslaved 
the people, and after a time subdued the whole country, except Xois in the 
Delta. During the early part of their invasion, the Twelfth Dynasty reigned at 
Thebes in great power and splendor. 

B. C. 1525, Amosis led a revolt which expelled the Hyksos, and founded the 
Eighteenth Dynasty at Memphis. Several queens were highly honored. The 
people were prosperous, hut the captive Hebrews were oppressed. Thothmes III 
built many palaces; Seti re-conquered Syria; and his son, Raineses the Great, 
gained victories in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the reign of Menephthah, the 
Israelites were led out of Egypt by Moses. Under the Twentieth Dynasty, the 
art, enterprise, and power of Egypt declined. The Twenty-first Dynasty was 
composed of priests; the Twenty-second, of soldiers. The Twenty-fourth was 
overthrown by Sabaco the Ethiopian; the Twenty-filth, which he founded, was, 
in turn, reduced by the Assyrians. After thirty years’ subjection, Egypt was 
delivered and united by Psammetichus, with the aid of foreign troops. Necho, 
his son, was successful in many naval and military enterprises, but was defeated 
at last by Nebuchadnezzar, in the battle of Carchemish. Apries was deposed by 
the same king, and Amasis came to the throne as a viceroy of Babylon. His 
son, Psammenitus, was conquered by Cambyses, and Egypt became a Persian 
province. 


RELIGION OF EGYPT. 

The religion of the ancient Egyptians was a perplexing mixture of 
grand conceptions and degrading superstitions. No other ancient people 
had so firm an assurance of immortality, or felt its motives so intimately 
affecting their daily life; yet no other carried its idolatries to so debasing 
and ridiculous an extreme. The contradiction is partly solved if we re¬ 
member two distinctions: the first applying chiefly to the ancient and 
heathen world, between the religion of priests and people; the second 
every-wliere existing, even in the One True Faith, between theoiy and 
practice—between ideal teaching and the personal character of those 

who receive it. 

170. The sacred books of the Egyptians contained the system adopted 
by the priests. Their fundamental doctrine was that God is one, unrepre¬ 
sented, invisible. But as God acts upon the world, his various attributes 


62 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


or modes of manifestation were represented in various forms. As the 
Creator, he was Plitha; as the Revealer, he was Am'un; as the Benefactor 
and the Judge of men, he was Osiris; and so on through an endless list 
of primary, secondary, and tertiary characters, which to the uneducated 
became so many separate divinities. Some portion ol his divine life was 
even supposed to reside in plants and animals, which were accordingly 
cherished and worshiped by the ignorant. For what to the wise were 
merely symbols, to the people became distinct objects ol adoration ; and 
the Egyptian priests, like all other heathen philosophers, disdained to 
spread abroad the light which they possessed. They despised the common 
people, whom they judged incapable of apprehending the sacred mysteries, 
and taught them only those convenient doctrines which would render them 
submissive to kingly and priestly authority. 

1.71. The people, then, believed in eight gods of the first order, twelve 
of the second, and seven of the third; but each of these was worshiped 
under many titles, or as connected with different places. Isis was, there¬ 
fore, surnamed Myrionyma, or “ with ten thousand names.” The sun and 
the moon were admitted to their worship; the former as representing the 
life-giving power of the deity, the latter as the regulator of time and the 
messenger of heaven. The moon was figured as the Ibis-headed Tlioth, 
who corresponds to the Greek Hermes, the god of letters and recorder of 
all human actions. 

172. A principle of evil was worshiped, in very early times, under the 
name of Seth, the Satan of Egyptian mythology. He was figured on a 
monument as instructing a king in the use of a bow. Sin is elsewhere 
represented as a great serpent, the enemy of gods and men, slain by the 
spear of Horus, the child of Isis. It seems impossible to doubt that the 
Egyptians had preserved some traditions of the promises made to Eve. 
At a later period the worship of the evil principle was abolished, and 
the square-eared images of Seth were chiseled off from the monuments. 

173. The most interesting article of Egyptian mythology is the appear¬ 
ance of Osiris on earth for the benefit of mankind, under the title of 
Manifestor of Goodness and Truth ; his death by the malice of the evil 
one; his burial and resurrection, and his office as judge of the dead. 
In every part of Egypt, and during all periods of its history, Osiris wast 
regarded as the great arbiter of the future state. 

174. In the earliest times human sacrifices were practiced, as is proved 
by the Sacrificial Seal which was accustomed to be affixed to the victim, 
and copies of which are frequently found in the tombs. It represents 
a kneeling human figure, bound, and awaiting the descent of the knife 
which glitters in the hand of a priest. But the practice was abolished by 
Amosis (B. C. 1525-1499), who ordered an equal number of waxen effigies 
to be offered instead of the human victims. 


f 


RELIGION OF EGYPT. 


63 


175. The worship of animals was the most revolting feature of Egyptian 
ceremonies. Throughout Egypt the ox, dog, cat, ibis, hawk, and the fishes 
lepidotus and oxyrrynchus were held sacred. Beside these there were 
innumerable local idolatries. Mei/des worshiped the goat; Heracleop 7 - 
olis, the ichneumon; Cynop'olis, the dog; Lycop'olis, the wolf; AThribis, 
the shrew-mouse; Sa / 'is and Thebes, the sheep; Babylon near Memphis 
the ape, etc. Still more honored were the bull Apis, at Memphis; the 
calf Mne / vis, at Heliopolis; and the crocodiles of OnBbos and Arsin'oe. 
These were tended in their stalls by priests, and worshiped by the people 
with profound reverence. Apis, the living symbol of Osiris, passed his 
day*5 in an Apeum attached to the Serapeum at Memphis. When he died 
he was embalmed, and buried in so magnificent a manner that the persons 
in charge of the ceremony were often ruined by the expense. He was 
supposed to be the son of the moon, and was known by a white triangle 
or square on his black forehead, the figure of a vulture on his back, and 
of a beetle under his tongue. He was never allowed to live more than 
twenty-five years. If he seemed likely to survive this period, he was 
drowned in the sacred fountain, and another Apis was sought. The 
chemistry of the priests had already produced the required white spots 
in the black hair of some young calf, and the candidate was never sought 
in vain. At the annual rising of the Nile, a seven-days’ feast was held 
in honor of Osiris. 

176. Difference of worship sometimes led to bitter enmities between 
the several nomes. Thus, at Ombos the crocodile was worshiped, while 
at Ten / tyra it was hunted and abhorred; the ram-headed Am'un was 
an object of adoration at Thebes, and the sheep was a sacred animal, 
while the goat was killed for food; in Men'des the goat was worshiped 
and the sheep was eaten. The LycopoKites also ate mutton in compli¬ 
ment to the wolves, which they venerated. 

177. If we turn from the trivial rites to the moral effects of the 
Egyptian faith, we find more to respect. The rewards and punishments 
of a future life were powerful incitements to right dealing in the present. 
At death all became equal: the king or the highest pontiff equally with 
the lowest swine-herd must be acquitted by the judges before his body 
was permitted to pass the sacred lake and be buried with his fathers. 
Every nome had its sacred lake, across which all funeral processions 
passed on their way to the city of the dead. On the side nearest the 
abodes of the living, have been found the remains of multitudes who 
failed to pass the ordeal, and whose bodies were ignominiously returned 
to their friends, to be disposed of in the speediest manner. 

178. Beside the earthly tribunal of forty-two judges, who decided the 
fate of the body, it was believed that the soul must pass before the divine 
judgment-seat before it could enter the abodes of the blessed. The Book 


A NCI ENT II 1ST OR Y. 


(54 


of the Dead —the only one yet discovered of the forty-two sacred books 
of the Egyptians — contains a description of the trial of a departed soul. 
It is represented on its long journey as occupied with prayers and con¬ 
fessions. Forty-two gods occupy the judgment-seat. Osiris presides; and 
before him are the scales, in one of which the statue of perfect Justice is 
placed; in the other, the heart of the deceased. The soul of the dead 
stands watching the balance, while Ilorus examines the plummet indi¬ 
cating which, way the beam preponderates; and Thoth, the Justifie; 
records the sentence. If this is favorable, the soul receives a mark or 
seal, “Justified.” 

17J). The temples of Egypt are the grandest architectural monuments 
in the world. That of AinTm, in a rich oasis twenty days’ journey from 
Thebes, was one of the most famous of ancient oracles Near it, in a 
grove of palms, rose a hot spring, the Fountain of the Sun, whose 
bubbling and smoking were supposed to be tokens of the divine presence. 
The oasis was a resting-place for caravans which passed between Egypt 
and the interior regions of Nigritia or Soudan; and many rich offerings 
were placed in the temple by merchants, thankful to have so nearly 
escaped the perils of the desert, or anxious to gain the favor of Amun for 
their journey just begun. 

ISO. The Egyptians were divided into castes, or ranks, distinguished by 
occupations. These have been variously numbered from three to seven. 
The priests stood highest, the soldiers next; below these were husband¬ 
men, who may be divided into gardeners, boatmen, artisans of various 
kinds, and shepherds, the latter including goat-herds and swine-herds, 
which last were considered lowest of all. 

181. The land, at least under the new empire, belonged exclusively to 
the king, the priests, and the soldiers. In the time when Joseph the 
Hebrew was prime minister, all other proprietors surrendered their lands 
to the crown,* retaining possession of them only on condition of paying 
a yearly rent of one-fifth of the produce. 

182. The king was the representative of deity, and thus the head not 
only of the government but of the religion of the state. His title, Phrali 
(Pharaoh), signifying the Sun, pronounced him the emblem of the god 
of light. It was his right and office to preside over the sacrifice and pour 
out libations to the gods. 

183. On account of his great responsibilities, the king of Egypt was 
allowed less freedom in personal habits than the meanest of his subjects. 
The sacred books contained minute regulations for his food, drink, and 
dress, and the employment of his time. No indulgence of any kind was 
permitted to be carried to excess. No slave or hireling was allowed ig 


* See Genesis xlvii: 18-26. 



RELIGION OF EGYPT. 


65 


hold office about his person, lest he should imbibe ideas unworthy of a 
prince; but noblemen of the highest rank were alone privileged to attend 
him. The ritual of every morning’s worship chanted the virtues of former 
kings, and reminded him of his own duties. After death his body was 
placed in an open court, where all his subjects might come with accusa¬ 
tions; and if his conduct in life was proved to have been unworthy his 
high station, he was forever excluded from the sepulcher of his fathers. * 

184. The priestly order possessed great power in the state, and, so far as 
the sovereign was concerned, we can not deny that they used it well. They 
were remarkable for their simple and temperate habits of living. So careful 
were they that the body should “ sit lightly upon the soul,” that they took 
food only of the plainest quality and limited amount, abstaining from 
many articles, such as fish, mutton, swine’s flesh, beans, peas, garlic, 
leeks, and onions, which were in use among the common people. They 
bathed twice a day and twice during the night — some of the more strict, 
in water that had been tasted by their sacred bird, the ibis, that they 
might have undoubted evidence of its cleanliness. By this example of 
abstinence, purity, and humility, as well as by their reputation for learning, 
the Egyptian priests established almost unlimited control over the people. 
Their knowledge of physical science enabled them, by optical illusions and 
other tricks, to excite the terror and superstitious awe of their ignorant 
spectators. Nor did their reputed power end with this life, for they could 
refuse to any man the passport to the “ outer world,” which alone could 
secure his eternal happiness. 

185. The science of medicine was cultivated by the priests in even the 
remotest ages. The universal practice of embalming was exercised by 
physicians, and this enabled them to study the effects of various diseases, 
by examination of the body after death. Asiatic monarchs sent to Egypt 
for their physicians, and the prolific soil of the Nile Valley supplied drugs 
for all the world. To this day, the characters used by apothecaries to 
denote drams and grains are Egyptian ciphers as adopted by the Arabs. 

186. The soldiers, when not engaged in service either in foreign wars, 
in garrisons, or at court, were settled on their own lands. These were situ¬ 
ated chiefly east of the Nile or in the Delta, since it was in these quarters 
that the country was most exposed to hostile invasions. Each soldier was 
allotted about six acres of land, free from all tax or tribute. From its 
proceeds he defrayed the expense of his own arms and equipment. 

187. Upon the walls of their tombs are found vivid delineations of the 
daily life of the Egyptians. Their industries, such as glass-blowing, linen¬ 
weaving, rope-making, etc., as well as their common recreations of hunting, 
fishing, ball-playing, wrestling, and domestic scenes, as in the entertainment 
of company, are all represented in sculpture or paintings upon the walls 
of Thebes or Beni-hassan. Dolls and other toys of children are found in 


A. IT.—5. 


66 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the tombs; and it is evident that the Egyptians had so familiarized the 
idea of death as to have rid themselves of the gloomy and painful associ¬ 
ations with which it is often surrounded. The body, after being prepared 
for the tomb, was returned to the house of its abode, where it was kept 
never less than thirty days, and sometimes even a year, feasts being given 
in its honor, and it being always present in the company of guests. From 
the moment when the forty-two judges had pronounced their favorable 
verdict on the border of the lake, the lamentations of the funeral train 
were changed into songs of triumph, and the deceased was congratulated 
on his admission to the glorified company of the friends of Osiris. 


CARTHAGE. 

188. About 850 B. C., Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, having 
been cruelly wronged by her brother in the murder of her husband, 
AcePbas, resolved to escape from his dominions and establish a new 
empire. Accompanied by some Tyrian nobles who were dissatisfied with 
the rule of Pygmalion, she sailed in a fleet laden with the treasures of her 
husband, and came to anchor at length in a bay on the northern coast of 
Africa, about six miles north of the modern Tunis. 

189. The Libyan natives, who knew the value of commerce and the 
wealth of Phoenician colonies, were inclined to be friendly; but their first 
transaction with the new settlers promised advantages only to one side. 
Dido proposed to lease from them as much land as could be covered with 
a bullock’s hide. The yearly ground-rent being settled, she then ordered 
the hide to be cut into the thinnest possible strips, and thus surrounded a 
large portion of land, on which she built the fortress of ByPsa. The 
colony prospered, however, and was strengthened by the alliance of Utica 
and other Tyrian settlements on the same coast. By similar arrangements 
with the Libyans, the queen obtained permission to build the town of 
Carthage, which became the seat of a great commercial empire. 

190. As the New City* rose to a high degree of power and wealth, 
HiaPbas, a neighboring king, sent to demand a marriage with Dido, threat¬ 
ening war in case of refusal. The queen seemed to consent for the benefit 
of her state; but at the end of three months’ preparation, she ascended a 
funeral pile upon which sacrifices had been offered to the shades of AceP- 
bas, and declaring to her people that she was going to her husband, as 


* The Phoenician name of Carthage signified the New City, distinguishing it 
either from the neighboring Utica, whose name meant the Old City, or from 
Byrsa, the first fortress of Dido. When New Carthage (Carthagena) was built 
upon the coast of Spain, the original settlement began to be called by the 
Romans Carthago Vetus , which is as if we should say “ Old Newtown.” 



CARTHAGE. 


67 


they had desired, plunged a sword into her breast. Dido continued to be 
worshiped as a divinity in Carthage as long as the city existed. 

191. So far our story is mixed with fable, though containing, doubtless, 
a large proportion of truth. What we certainly know is, that the latest 
•colony of Tyre soon became the most powerful; that it grew by the alli¬ 
ance and immigration of the neighboring Libyans, as well as of its sister 

colonies; and that it gained in wealth by the destruction * 

t • • • « B® C. 585. 

of its parent city in the Babylonian wars. While the Levant¬ 
ine commerce of Tyre fell to the Greeks, that of the West was naturally 
inherited by the Carthaginians. 

192. The African tribes, to whom the colonists were at first compelled to 
pay tribute for the slight foot-hold they possessed, became at length totally 
subjugated. They cultivated their lands for the benefit of Carthage, and 
might at any time be forced to contribute half their movable wealth to her 
treasury, and all their young men to her armies. The Phoenician settle¬ 
ments gradually formed themselves into a confederacy, of which Carthage 
was the head, though she possessed no authority beyond the natural leader¬ 
ship of the most powerful. Her dominions extended westward to the Pil¬ 
lars of Hercules, and down the African coast to the end of the Atlas range; 
on the east her boundaries were fixed, after a long contest with the Greek 
city of Cyre'ne, at the bottom of the Great Syrtis, or gulf, which indents 
the northern shore. 

193. Not content with her continental domains, Carthage gained pos¬ 
session of most of the islands of the western Mediterranean. The coast 
of Sicily was already dotted with Phoenician trading stations. These came 
under the control of Carthage; and though out-rivaled in prosperity by the 
free cities of the Greeks, especially AgrigeiTtum and Syracuse, the western 
portion of the island long remained a valuable possession. The Balearic 
Islands were occupied by Carthaginian troops. Sardinia was conquered by 
a long and severe conflict, and became a most important station for the 
trade with Western Europe. Settlements were established in Corsica and 
Spain, while, in the Atlantic, the islands of Madeira and the Canaries were 
early subdued. 

194. These conquests were made chiefly by means of foreign mercenaries 
drawn both from Europe and Africa. South and west of Carthage were the 
barbarous but usually friendly tribes of Numid'ia and Mauritania; and her 
merchants in their journeys had frequent dealings with the warlike races of 
Spain, Gaul, and northern Italy. It is said that the Carthaginians mingled 
these various nations in their armies in such a manner that difference of 
language might prevent their plotting together. 

195. The navy of Carthage was of great importance in protecting her 


* See l 47. 




68 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


commerce from the swarms of pirates which infested the Mediterranean. 
The galleys were propelled by oars in the hands of slaves, but the officers 
and sailors were usually native Carthaginians. With these land and naval 
forces, Carthage became for several centuries undisputed mistress of the 
central and western Mediterranean. 

106. Toward the middle of the sixth century B. C., a great commercial 
rival appeared in the western waters. The Greeks had begun their system 
of colonization; had opened a trade with Tartes'sus, multiplied their settle¬ 
ments in Sicily and Corsica, and built MassiFia near the mouth of the Rhone. 
Near the close of our First Period, the two powers came into fierce collision, 
anti the Grecian fleet was destroyed by that of Carthage, aided by her 

Etruscan allies. At the same time Rome, which had grown 
B. C. 509. , ...... 

powerful under her kings, became free by their expulsion; 

and the Carthaginians, hitherto on friendly terms with the Italians, made 

a treaty of alliance with the new Republic which was to prove their most 

unrelenting foe. 

197. The government of Carthage, under the forms of a republic, was 
really an aristocracy of wealth. The two chief officers were the SuffeTes, 
who at first, like the Hebrew rulers from Joshua to Samuel, led the people 
in war and judged them in peace. In later times their office became exclu¬ 
sively civil, and generals were appointed for military command. The Suf- 
fetes were elected only from certain families, and probably for life. 

19S. Next came the Council of several hundreds of citizens, from which 
committees of five were chosen to administer the various departments of 
state. At a later period, when the house of Mago had risen to a degree 
of military power which was thought to endanger the public safety, a 
Council of One Hundred was added to these, before which all generals 
returning from war were obliged to present themselves and render an 
account of their actions. So severe were the judgments of this tribunal, 
that an unsuccessful general often preferred suicide upon the field of battle 
to meeting their awards. With the two judges and the two high priests, 
this council constituted the Supreme Court of the Republic. 

199. The larger Council, or Senate, received foreign embassadors, delib¬ 
erated upon all matters of state, and decided questions of war or peace, with 
a certain deference to the authority of the Suffetes. If the judges and the 
senate could not agree, appeal was made to the people. 

200. The religion of Carthage was the same as that of Tyre, with the 
addition of the worship of two or three Grecian divinities, whom the Car¬ 
thaginians thought it necessary to appease by sacrifices after destroying 
their temples in Sicily. Every army was accompanied by a prophet or 
diviner, without whose direction nothing could be done. Generals fre¬ 
quently offered sacrifices, even during the progress of a battle. There was 
no hereditary priesthood, as in Egypt, but the priestly offices were filled by 


CARTHAGE. 


69 


the highest persons in the state, sometimes even by the sons of the kings 
or judges. In every new settlement a sanctuary was erected, that the relig¬ 
ion of the mother country might grow together with her government and 
commerce. Every year a fleet left Carthage, laden with rich offerings and 
bearing a solemn embassy to the shrine of the Tyrian Hercules. The 
human sacrifices and other hideous rites of Phoenician worship prevailed 
at Carthage; and though these features were somewhat softened by ad¬ 
vancing civilization, we shall find traces enough, in future pages of her 
history, of that cruelty which makes so dark a blemish in the character 
of the whole race. 

201. The trade of Carthage was carried on both by land and sea. Her 
caravans crossed the Great Desert by routes still traveled, and exchanged 
the products of northern countries for those of Upper Egypt, Ethiopia, 
Fezzan, and, perhaps, the far interior regions of NigrPtia. The manufac¬ 
tures of Carthage included fine cloths, hardware, pottery, and harness of 
leather; but beside the exchange of her own products, she possessed 
almost exclusively the carrying-trade between the nations of Africa and 
western Europe. 

202. The ships of Carthage penetrated all the then known seas; and 
though confined to coast navigation, they explored the Atlantic from 
Norway to the Cape of Good Hope. Hanno, the son of HamiPcar, con¬ 
ducted sixty ships bearing 30,000 colonists to the western shores of Africa, 
where he planted a chain of six colonies between the Straits and the 
island of CePne. He then went southward with some of his ships as far 
as the River Gambia, and visited the Gold Coast, with which his country¬ 
men thenceforth carried on a regular traffic. On his return he placed an 
inscription, commemorative of this voyage, on a brazen tablet in the temple 
of Kro'nos, at Carthage. Himilco, his brother, led another expedition the 
same year to the western coast of Europe, but of this the history is lost. 

203. These extensive voyages in the interest of trade brought the products 
of the world into the Carthaginian markets. There might be seen muslins 
from Malta; oil and wine from Italy; wax and honey from Corsica; iron 
from Elba; gold, silver, and iron from Spain; tin from Cornwall and the 
Scilly Isles; amber from the Baltic; gold, ivory, and slaves from Sene- 

ganPbia. 

•O f _ _ . _ 

204. While commerce was so abundant a source of wealth, agriculture 
was the favorite pursuit of nobles and people. Hie fertile soil of Libya 
yielded a hundred-fold to the farmer. So fond were wealthy Carthaginians 
of the healthful toils of the field, that one of their great men wrote a work, 
in twenty-eight volumes, on methods of husbandry; and this alone, of all 
the treasures of their literature, was thought by their Roman conquerors 
worthy of preservation. 

205. We have slightly anticipated the course of events, in order to 


70 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


present a connected account of the government, religion, and trade of 
Carthage. Of her wars with the Sicilian Greeks, from the disastrous 
defeat of Hamilcar at Him'era, B. C. 480, to the peace of B. C. 304, we 
have no space for the details. The final period of Carthaginian history, 
comprising the Roman wars and the destruction of the city, will be found 
in Book V. 


recapittjlatioit. 

Carthage, a colony of Tyre, became sovereign of the shores and islands of the 
western Mediterranean, a rival of Greece, and an ally of Rome. Her army and 
navy were largely composed of European and African mercenaries. Her govern¬ 
ment was republican, with two judges at its head, foreign affairs being trans¬ 
acted by a council of citizens. Religious ceremonies claimed a large share of 
attention, both in war and peace. Commerce extended by land to the interior 
of Africa; by sea, from the Baltic to the Indian Ocean; and products of all the 
world filled the Carthaginian markets. Agriculture was a favorite employment 
with nobles and common people. 


QUEST JOIN'S FOR REVIEW. 
Book I. — Part II. 


1. What is remarkable in the early history of Egypt?.§g 126-128. 

2. Describe the first monarch of the united empire.129. 

3. His successors in the same dynasty.130. 

4. How many dynasties before the Persian Conquest?.163. 

5. Describe the kings of the Third Dynasty. 131 , 132 . 

6 . The Pyramid-builders.133-13.5. 

7. What dynasties were subject to the fourth ?.136. 

8 . Describe the divisions of Egypt and their consequences. . . . 138, 139. 

9. The monuments of the Twelfth Dynasty.140. , 

10. The dominion ana character of the Hyksos. 141 , 142. 

11. The rise of the New Empire. 143 , 

12. The family of Tliothmes I.. 146, 147. 

13. Name the remaining kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty. . . . 148,149. 

14. Who founded the Nineteenth Dynasty ?. 150 . 

15. Describe its second and third kings.. 150-152. 

16. The Exodus of the Hebrews. 154 . 

17. Egypt under the Twentieth Dynasty. 155,156. 

18. What connections of Egyptian and Hebrew history under the 

Twenty-first and Twenty-second Dynasties?. 157 , 153 . 

19. Who constituted the Twenty-fourth Dynasty ?.160. 

20. Tell the history of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty.161. 

21 . What was the condition of Egypt after the fall of Tirhakeh ? . . 162. 

22. What led to the rise of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty ?.163. 

23. What was the foreign policy of Psammetichus?.164. 

24. What naval enterprise in the reign of Necho ?.166. 

25. Describe the reigns of Apries and Amasis.167. 

26. The theory and practice of Egyptian religion.169, 17r- 












QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 


71 


27. What were the objects ol' worship?.171, 172, 175. 

28. Describe the twofold judgment of the dead.. 177, 178. 

29. Into what ranks were Egyptians divided?.180. 

30. Who owned the land?.181. 

31. Describe the dignities and duties of the king. 182, 183. 

32. The life and power of the priests.181. 

33. Their medical practice.185. 

34. The tombs, and honors paid to the dead.187. 

35. Give the traditional account of the founding of Carthage. . . . 188, 189. 

80. Describe the causes of its prosperity.101. 

37. The extent of its dominion. 192, 193. 

38. Its army and navy.. . 194, 195. 

39. What war and what alliance in the sixth century ?.190. 

40. Describe the government of Carthage. 197-199. 

41. Its religion. 200. 

42. Its trade by land and sea. 201-203. 

43. What was the favorite pursuit of the Carthaginians? .... 204. 




















BOOK II. 


The Persian Empire from the Pise of Cyrus to the 

Fall of Darius. 

15 . €. 558 - 330 . 

1. About 650 B. C., a warlike people, from the highlands east of the 
Caspian, took possession of the hilly country north of the Persian Gulf. 
They belonged, like the Medes, to the Aryan or Indo-Germanic family, 
and Were distinguished by a more hardy, simple, and virtuous character, 
and a purer faith, from the luxurious inhabitants of the Babylonian 
plains. The nation, as it soon became constituted, consisted of ten tribes, 
of whom four continued nomadic, three settled to the cultivation of the 
soil, and three bore arms for the general defense. Of these the Pasar 7 - 
gadae were preeminent, and formed the nobility of Persia, holding all 
high offices in the army and about the court. 

2. The first king, Achae / menes, was a Pasargadian, and from him all 
subsequent Persian kings were descended. For the first hundred years of 
its history, Persia was dependent upon the neighboring kingdom of Media. 
But a little after the middle of the sixth century before Christ, a revolution 
under Cy'rus reversed the relations of the Medo-Persian monarchy, and 
prepared the foundations of a great empire which was to reach beyond 
the Nile and the Hellespont on the west, and the Indus on the east. 

3. Cyrus spent many of his early years at the court of Asty'ages, his 
maternal grandfather, in the seven-walled city of EcbaUana. * The brave, 
athletic youth, accustomed to hardy sports and simple fare, despised the 
wine and dainty food, the painted faces and silken garments of the Median 
nobles. He saw that their strength was wasted by luxury, and that in case 
of a collision they would be no match for his warlike countrymen. At 
the same time, a party of the younger Medes gathered around Cyrus, pre¬ 
ferring his manly virtues to the effeminate pomp and cruel tyranny of their 
king, and impatient for the time when he should be their ruler. 


/ 


* See Book I, gg 38, 41. 


( 73 ) 




74 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


B. C. 558. 


4. When all was ready, the Persian prince rallied his countrymen and 
persuaded them to become independent of the Medes. Astyages raised an 

army to quell the revolt, but when the two forces met at 
Pasar'gadse, the greater part of the Medes went over to the 
Persian side. In a second battle Astyages was made prisoner, and the 
sovereignty of Media remained to the conqueror. 

5. The reign of Cyrus nsh full of warlike enterprises. By the time he 
had subdued the Median cities, Croesus,* king of Lydia, had become 
alarmed by his rapidly increasing power, and had stirred up Egypt, 
Babvlon, and the Greeks to oppose it. He crossed the Ha'lys, and en¬ 
countered the army of Cyrus near Sino'pe, in Cappado'cia. Neither party 
gained a victory ; but Croesus, finding his numbers inferior, drew back 
toward his capital, thinking to spend the winter in renewed preparations. 

Cyrus pursued him to the gates of Sardis, and defeated him 

B. C. 546. 

in a decisive battle. The city was taken, and Croesus owed 
his life to the mercy of his conqueror. His kingdom, which comprised all 
Asia Minor west of the Halys, was added to the Persian Empire. 

6. The monarchs of Asia had three methods of maintaining their do¬ 
minion over the countries they had conquered: 1. A large standing army 
was kept upon the soil, at the cost of the vanquished. 2. In case of revolt, 
whole nations were sometimes transported over a distance of thousands of 
miles, usually to the islands of the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean, 
while their places were filled by emigrants whose loyalty was assured. 
3. A more injurious, though apparently more indulgent policy, compelled 
a warlike people to adopt luxurious and effeminate manners. Such was 
the treatment of the Lydians, by the advice of their captive king. Croesus 
was now the trusted counselor of Cyrus. With a view to save his people 
from the miseries of transportation, he suggested that they should be de¬ 
prived of their arms, compelled to clothe themselves in soft apparel, and 
to train their youth in habits of gaming and drinking, thus rendering 
them forever incapable of disturbing the dominion of their conquerors. 
From a brave, warlike, and industrious race, the Lydians were transformed 
into indolent pleasure-seekers, and their country remained a submissive 
province of the empire of Cyrus. 

7. Capture of Babylon. Leaving Harpagus to complete the conquest 
of the Asiatic Greeks, Cyrus turned to the east, where he aimed at the 
greater glory of subduing Assyria. Nabonadius, f the Babylonian king, 
believed that the walls of his capital were proof against assault; but he 
was defeated, and the great city became the prey of the conqueror. The 
writings of Daniel, who was resident at the court of Nabonadius, and a 


* See Book I, \ 59. 
f See Book I, gg 53, 54. 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


75 


witness of the overthrow of his kingdom, inform us that Darius the 
Median took Babylon, being about sixty-two years old. It is probable 
that Darius was another name of Astyages himself, who, being deprived 
of his own kingdom, was compensated by the government of the most 
magnificent city of the East. His arbitrary decrees concerning Daniel 
and his accusers accord well with the character of Astyages. 

8. Return of the Jews. It will be remembered that the Jews were 
now captives in Babylonia, where they had remained seventy years, since 
the destruction of their Holy City by Nebuchadnezzar. Cyrus, who, like 
the Hebrews, was a believer in One God, found their pure religion an 
agreeable contrast to the corrupt and degrading rites of the Babylonians. 
He may have been moved by the prophecies of Isaiah, uttered nearly two 
centuries before, and those of Jeremiah at the time of the Captivity. 
(Isaiah xliv : 28, and xlv: 1-5; Jeremiah xxv : 12, and xxviii: 11.) He 
may also have had more selfish motives for favoring the Jews, in his 
designs upon Egypt, thinking it an advantage to have a friendly people 
established in the fortresses of Judah. In any case, he fulfilled the 
prophecies by giving orders for the return of the Israelites to their own 
land, and for the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem. The 5,400 
golden and silver vessels of the House of the Lord were brought forth 
from the Babylonian treasury and delivered to the prince of Judah, who 
received the Persian title SheshbazZar, corresponding to the modern 
Pasha 7 . Few of the original captives had survived, like Daniel, to witness 
the return; but a company of fifty thousand, men, women, and children, 
were soon collected from their settlements on the Euphrates and the Per¬ 
sian Gulf, and moving toward their own land. (Read Ezra i, and ii: 1, 
64, 65, 68-70.) On their arrival, the altar was immediately set up, the 
great festivals reestablished, a grant of cedars from the forests of Lebanon 
obtained, and preparations made for rebuilding the Temple. 

9. Cyrus never accomplished in person his designs upon Egypt. He 
extended his conquests westward to the borders of Macedonia, and east¬ 
ward to the Indus. Some of the conquered countries were left under the 
control of their native kings; some received Persian rulers. All were 
made tributary, but the proportion of their tribute was not fixed. The 
organization of this vast dominion was left to the successors of Cyrus. 

10. His last expedition was against the Massa'getae, a tribe which dwelt 

east of the Sea of Aral. The barbarians who roamed over these great 
northern plains had become formidable foes to the civilized c m 

empires of the south, but they were so thoroughly subdued 

by Cyrus that they troubled Persia no more for two hundred years. 
The victor, however, lost his life in a battle with Tom'yris, their queen, 
and the government and extension of his empire were left to the care 
of his son CambyZes. 


76 


ANCIENT II 1ST OR Y. 


11. In departing for liis Scythian campaign, Cyrus had left his young 
cousin Dari'us in Persia, the satrapy of his father, Hystas'pes. The 
night after crossing the Arax / es, he dreamed that he saw Darius with 
wings on his shoulders, the one overshadowing Asia, and the other 
Europe. The time and the region were fruitful in dreams, and this had 
a remarkable fulfillment. 

12. Reign of Cambyses. B. C. 529-522. Without the ability of his 
father, Cambyses inherited his warlike ambition, and soon proceeded to 
execute the plans of African conquest long cherished by Cyrus. He was 
a man of violent passions, which his unlimited power left without their 
just restraint, and many of his acts are more like those of a willful and 
io-norant child than of a reasonable man. 

13. Egypt, now governed by Ama'sis, was the only part of the Baby¬ 
lonian dominion which had not yielded to Cyrus. Amasis had begun his 
reign as viceroy of Nebuchadnezzar, but during the decline of the empire 
he had become independent. Cambyses prepared for his Egyptian cam¬ 
paign by the conquest of Phoenicia and Cyprus, the two naval powers of 
western Asia. He then marched into Egypt with a great force of Persians 
and Greeks. Amasis had recently died, but his son PsammeiPitus awaited 
the invader near the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile. A single battle decided 
the fate of Egypt. Psammenitus was defeated, and with his surviving fol¬ 
lowers shut himself up in Memphis. The siege was short, and at its termi¬ 
nation all Egypt submitted to Cambyses, who assumed the full dignity of 
the Pharaohs as “Lord of the Upper and Lower Countries.” The neigh¬ 
boring Libyans and the two Greek cities, Cyre'ne and Barca, also sent in 
their submission and offered gifts. 

14. Cambyses now meditated three expeditions: one by sea against the 
great commercial empire of Carthage; one against the Ammonians of the 
desert; and a third against the long-lived Ethiopians,* whose country was 
reputed to be rich in gold. The first was abandoned, because the Phoeni¬ 
cians refused to serve against one of their own colonies. To the last-named 
people Cambyses sent an embassy of the Ich'thyoph'agi, who lived upon 
the borders of the Red Sea and understood their language. These were 
charged to carry presents to the Macrobian king, and assure him that the 
Persian monarch desired his friendship. The Ethiopian replied in plain 
terms: “Neither has the king of Persia sent you because he valued my 


* The Macro'bii, so called by the Greeks because they were l'eputed to live 120 
years or more, were a tribe of extraordinary strength and stature dwelling south¬ 
ward from Egypt. Some suppose them to have been ancestors of the Somauli, 
near Cape Guardafui, while others place them on the left bank of the Nile, in 
what is now Nubia. Their prisoners were said to be fettered with golden chains, 
because gold with them was more abundant and cheaper than iron. The bodies 
of their dead were inclosed in columns of glass or crystal. 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


77 


alliance, nor do you speak the truth, for you are come as spies of my king¬ 
dom. Nor is he a just man ; for if he were just, he would not desire any 
land but his own, nor would he reduce people to servitude who have done 
him no harm. However, give him this bow, and say these words to him. 
The king of the Ethiopians advises the king of the Persians, when his 
Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war upon 
the long-lived Ethiopians with a more numerous army; but until that 
time let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethi¬ 
opians with a desire of adding another land to their own.” 

15. When Cambyses heard the reply of the Ethiopian he was enraged, 
and without the usual military forethought to provide magazines of food, 
he instantly put his army in motion. Arriving at Thebes, he sent off a 
detachment of 50,000 men to destroy the temple and oracle of Annin * in 
the Oasis. This army was buried in the sands of the desert, without even 
beholding Ammonium. The main army of Cambyses was almost equally 
unfortunate. Before a fifth part of its journey was completed its provisions 
were spent. The beasts of burden were then eaten, and life was supported 
a little longer by herbs gathered from the soil. But when they reached 
the desert, both food and water failed, and the wretched men were reduced 
to eating certain of their comrades chosen by lot. By this time even the 
rage of the king was exhausted, and he consented to turn back ; but he 
arrived at Memphis with a small portion of the host which had gone forth 
with him upon this ill-concerted enterprise. 

16. He found the Memphians keeping a joyous festival in honor of the 
god Apis, who had just reappeared, f The Persian was in ill humor from 
his recent disasters, and chose to believe that the Egyptians were rejoicing 
in his misfortunes. He ordered the new Apis to be brought into his pres¬ 
ence. When the animal appeared, he drew his dagger and pierced it in 
the thigh; then, laughing loudly, exclaimed: “Ye blockheads, are there 
such gods as this, consisting of blood and flesh, and sensible of steel ? 
This, truly, is a god worthy of the Egyptians!” He commanded his 
officers to scourge the priests and kill all the people who were found 
feasting. The Egyptians believed that Cambyses was instantly smitten 
with insanity as a punishment for this sacrilege. A reason may be found 
for his contemptuous treatment of Apis in that Persian hatred of idolatry 
which led him to shatter even the colossal images of the kings before many 
temples, and caused him to be regarded by ancient travelers as the great 

Tconoclast of Egypt. 

17. The mad career of Cambyses was near its end. Before leaving 
Persia, he had caused the secret assassination of his younger brother. 


* See Book I, § 179. 
f See Book I, § 175. 




78 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Bar'des, or, as the Greek historians called him, Smerdis, to whom their 
lather had left the government of several provinces. He was about to 
leave Egypt, when a report arrived that Smerdis had revolted against him. 
The king now suspected that he had been betrayed by the too faithful 
messenger wiiom he had sent to kill his brother. The leader of the 
revolt, however, was neither of royal nor Persian blood. Goma / tes, a 
Magian, had been left by Cambyses steward of his palace at Susa. This 
man conspired with his order throughout the empire for a rising of the 
Medes against the Persians, and for the suppression of the reformed relig¬ 
ion which the latter had brought in. Happening to resemble the younger 
son of Cyrus, he boldly announced to the people that Smerdis, brother of 
Cambyses, claimed their obedience. The story appeared credible, for the 
death of the prince had purposely been kept secret, so that nearly all the 
world, except Praxas'pes and his master, supposed him to be still alive. 

18. Cambyses was already in Syria when he received a herald who 
demanded the obedience of the army to Smerdis, son of Cyrus. Caughi 
in his own toils, the king lamented in vain that tor foolish jealousy he 
had murdered the only man who could have exposed the fraud, and who 
might have been the best support and defender of his throne. Overcome 
with grief and shame, he sprang on horseback to begin his journey to 
Persia, but in the act his sword was unsheathed and entered his side, 
inflicting a mortal wound. He lingered three weeks, during which time 
he showed more reason than in all his life before. He confessed and be¬ 
wailed the murder of his brother, and besought the Persian nobles to 
conquer the deceitful Magus and bestow the kingdom on one more worthy. 
He had neither son nor brother to succeed him. He had reigned seven 
years and five months. 

19. Reign of the Pseudo-Smerdis. B. C. 522-521. As it is the just 
punishment of liars not to be believed even when they speak the truth, 
Cambyses’ last confession was commonly supposed to be the most artful 
transaction of his life. The nobles, who had no knowledge of the death 
of Smerdis, believed that it was he indeed who was reigning at Susa, and 
that his brother had invented the story of the Magus to make his dethrone¬ 
ment more certain. The pretended king lived in great seclusion, never 
quitting his palace, and permitting the various members of his household/ 
no intercourse with their relations. All orders were issued by his prime 
minister. He closed the Zoroastrian temples, restored the Magian priest¬ 
hood, and ordered the discontinuance of the rebuilding at Jerusalem. 
(Read Ezra iv : 17-24.) These religious changes, such as no Achsemenian 
prince could have favored, began to awaken suspicions. Seven great 
princes of the royal race, having learned by a spy within the palace that 
the pretended monarch was only a Magian whom Cyrus had deprived 
of his ears, formed a league to dethrone him. Their bold attack was 


THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


79 

successful; the Magus was pursued into Media, and slain after a reign 
of eight months; and Dari'us Hystas'pes, * one of the seven conspirators, 
was eventually chosen to be king. 

20. Reign of Darius I. B. C. 521-486. The first years of Darius 
were disturbed by rebellions which shook his throne to its foundation. 
No fewer than eleven satrapies were successively in revolt. The most 
important was that of Babylon, which for twenty months defied all the 
efforts of the great king to reduce it. At length Zop'yrus, son of one of 
the conspirators who had raised Darius to the throne, invented an in¬ 
genious though revolting scheme. He cut off his own nose and ears, 
applied the scourge to his shoulders until they were stained with blood, 
and having agreed with the king upon his further conduct, deserted to 
the Babylonians. To them he represented that the king had treated him 
with such cruel indignity that he burned for revenge. His wounds added 
plausibility to his story; he was received into the confidence of the rebels, 
and on the tenth day he was intrusted with the command of a sallying 
party which was to repulse an attack of the Persians. 

Darius had been advised to send to the SemPramis Gate a body of 
those troops whom he could best spare: a thousand of them were cut 
to pieces. In a second sortie led by Zopyrus, two thousand Persians were 
slain; in a third, four thousand. This slaughter of seven thousand of his 
countrymen removed from the minds of the Babylonians all doubt of 
the truth of Zopyrus. The keys of the city were committed to his care, 
and the preparation for his treachery was now complete. During a con¬ 
certed assault by the Persians, he opened the gates to Darius, who pro¬ 
ceeded to take signal vengeance for the long defiance of his power. The 
reckless sacrifice of human life in this transaction shows how the habit 
of unlimited power had impaired the disposition of Darius, which was 
naturally merciful. 

21. To guard against future disturbances, Darius now endeavored to 
give a more thorough and efficient organization to the great empire, which 
Cyrus and Cambyses had built up. He divided the whole territory into 
twenty satrapies, or provinces, and imposed upon each a tribute according 
to its wealth. The native kings whom Cyrus had left upon their thrones 
were all swept away, and a Persian governor, usually connected by blood 
or marriage with the great king, was placed over each province. Order 
within and safety from without were secured by standing armies of Medes 
or Persians, posted at convenient stations throughout the empire. Royal 

broads were constructed and a system of couriers arranged, by which the 
court received constant and swift intelligence of all that occurred in the 
provinces. 


* See g 11. Also, Darius’s own account of the imposture of the Magus, p. 87 




80 


ANCIENT HIST OR Y. 


22. To prevent revolt, an elaborate system of checks was instituted, 
which left the satrap little power of indeperlent action. In this earlier 
and stronger period of the consolidated empire, the satrap exercised only 
the civil government, the military being wielded by generals and com¬ 
mandants of garrisons, while, in Persia at least, the judicial power resided 
in judges appointed directly by the king. Beside these constitutional 
checks upon the satrap, there were in every province the “king’s eyes” 
and the “ king’s ears,” in the persons of royal secretaries attached to his 
court, whose duty it was to communicate secretly and constantly with the 
sovereign, and to keep him informed of every occurrence within their re¬ 
spective districts. 

The slightest suspicion of revolt communicated to the king by these 
spies, Avas sufficient to bring an order for the death of the satrap. This 
order was addressed to his guards, who instantly executed it by heAving 
him down with their sabers. Each province, moreover, was liable every 
moment to a sudden visit from the king or his commissioner, who ex¬ 
amined the satrap’s accounts, heard the grievances of his subjects, and 
either deprived an unjust ruler of his place, or noted a Avise, upright, 
and • beneficent one for promotion to greater honor. The satrap, on a 
smaller scale, affected the same magnificence of living as the great king 
himself. Each had his “paradises,” or pleasure-gardens, attached to 
numerous palaces. The satrap of Babylon had a daily revenue of nearly 
two bushels of coined silver; his stables contained nearly seventeen 
thousand steeds, and the income from four toAvns barely sufficed for the 
maintenance of his dogs. 

23. The court of Susa surpassed all this display of Avealth as much as 
the sun surpasses the planets. Fifteen thousand persons fed daily at the 
king’s tables. The royal journeys Avere of necessity confined to the Avealthier 
portion of the empire, for in the poorer provinces such a visitation Avould 
have produced a famine. The king seldom appeared in public, and the 
approach to his presence Avas guarded by long lines of officers, each of 
whom had his appointed station, from the ministers of highest rank Avho 
stood in the audience-chamber, to the humblest attendant avIio Avaited at 
the gate. 

24. The royal retinue included a numerous army, divided according to its' 
nationalities into corps of 10.000 each. Of these the most celebrated Avere 
the Persian “ Immortals,” so called because their number Avas ahvays 
exactly maintained. If an “Immortal” died, a Avell-trained member of a 
reserve-corps Avas ready to take his place. They Avere chosen from all the 
nation for their strength, stature, and fine personal appearance. Their 
armor Avas resplendent Avith silver and gold, and on the march or in battle 
they were always near the person of the king. The royal secretaries, or 
scribes, formed another important part of the retinue of the court. They 







:'l'i ''' I, Jhhjfr 






FIGURE OF A GOOD ANGEL—PERHAPS SRAOSHA 




To face p, 

















































































THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


83 


wrote down every word that fell from the monarch’s lips, especially his 
commands, which, once uttered, could never be recalled. (Esther viii: 8; 
Daniel vi: 8, 12, 15.) 

RECAPITULATION. 

Persia, having been for a century subject to tbe Medes, became independent 
under Cyrus, who also conquered Lydia and Babylonia, liberated the Jews, and 
founded a great empire reaching from Macedonia to India. He died in war 
with the Scythians, and the African expedition was left to Cambyses, his sou. 
This king conquered Egypt, but his attempts against Ethiopia and the temple 
of Araun resulted only in disaster. His contempt for Egyptian idolatry was, 
according to the priests, punished with madness. A revolt in the name of 
Smerdis, whom he had murdered, placed a Magian upon the throne, and effected 
a reaction against the Persian reformation. The Magian was dethroned by 
Darius Hystaspes, who became the great organizer of the empire of Cyrus. 
Twenty satrapies took the place of the conquered kingdoms. A system of royal 
roads, couriers, and spies kept the whole dominion within the reach and beneath 
the eye of the king, who was surrounded by a multitude of officials and pro¬ 
tected by a numerous army, the Persian Immortals having precedence in rank. 

Persian Religion. 

25. The Persians held the reformed religion taught by Zo / roas / ter, a 
great law-giver and prophet, who appeared in the Medo-Bactrian kingdom 
long before* the birth of Cyrus In every part of the East, the belief in 
One God, and the pure and simple worship which the human family had 
learned in its original home, had become overlaid by false mythologies 
and superstitious rites. The teachings of Zoroaster divided the Aryan 
family into its two Asiatic Tranches, which have ever since remained dis¬ 
tinct. The Hindus retained their sensuous Nature-worship, of which 
IiPdra (storm and thunder), Mitl/ra (sunlight), Va'yu (wind), Agni (fire), 
Arama'ti (earth), and Soma (the intoxicating principle in liquids), were 
the chief objects. Zoroaster was led, either by reason or divine revelation, 
to a purer faith. He taught the supremacy of a Living Creator, a person, 
and not merely a power, whom he called Ahu'ro-Mazdao, or Or'mazd. 
The name has been differently rendered, the Divine Much-Giving, the 
Creator of Life, or the Living Creator of All. Ormazd was believed to 
bestow not merely earthly good, but the most precious spiritual gifts— 
truth, devotion, the “good mind,” and everlasting joy. 

20. It has been seen that Cyrus regarded the God of the Hebrews as 
the object of his own worship (Ezra i: 1-4); and the Jewish prophets 
recognize the same identity in their description of Cyrus (Isaiah xlv: 1-5). 
Both nations had a profound hatred of idolatry. No image of any kind 
was seen in the Persian temples. Both believed in the ministration of 
angels.- The throne of Ormazd was surrounded by six princes of light, 


* He was probably contemporary with Abraham. 

A. II.—6. 



84 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Danube, he crossed the bridge and gave orders to the Greeks to remain 
and guard it sixty days; if in that time he did not return, they might 
conclude that he had gone to Media by another route. The details of the 
grea-t king’s operations north of the Danube are unknown to history. 
There were no great cities to take; the wandering Scythians destroyed 
their scanty harvests, stopped their wells, removed their families north¬ 
ward to places of security, and drew the invader after them into the 
depths of their forests or uninhabited deserts. 

• Unable to bring his enemy to battle, and seeing his army reduced to great 
distress for want of food and water, Darius was, compelled to retreat by the 
way he had come. The sixty days were more than elapsed when a Scythian 
force, which had been watching his movements, hastened to the Danube by 
a shorter route, urging the Ionians, who were still on guard, to destroy the 
bridge and leave Darius to perish, like Cyrus, in the northern deserts. 
The Greeks of Asia might thus have gained their freedom without a blow; 
but the tyrants who commanded the fleet had interests of their own quite 
separate from those of their people. Histise'us of Mile'tus urged upon 
his fellow-despots that their power must fall with that of Darius, being 
sustained by him against the popular will. His arguments prevailed, and 
the great king, arriving in the darkness of midnight, closely pursued by 
the Scythians, was able to repass the river in safety. 

33. Histiseus was rewarded by a grant of land on the river Stry / mon, 
including the town of MyrcUnus, for the site of a colony. With its fertile 
soil, ample forests, convenience for commerce, and neighboring mines of 
gold and silver, this new domain immediately attracted settlers and became 
an important maritime station. Its rapid growth, indeed, excited the 
fears of Darius, lest its owner might become too powerful for a vassal, 
and interpose a barrier between himself and the Greeks. He sent for 
Histiseus, whom he treated with every mark of respect, and pretending 
that he could not do without his valuable counsels, kept him constantly 
within reach at the court of Susa. Histiseus, resolved to break his golden 
chains at any cost, sent a singular epistle to his cousin, Aristag / oras, 
whom he had left as his lieutenant at Miletus, commanding him to stir 
up a revolt among the Asiatic Greeks. 

34. The Ionian cities, extending ninety miles along the coast in an 
almost unbroken line of magnificent quays, warehouses, and dwellings, 
were so important to the empire, on account of the fleets which they 
could furnish, that they had been left in greater freedom than any other 
conquered territory. Instead of satraps, they were governed by their own 
magistrates — either a single tyrant in each city or a council of nobles, 
called an oligarchy — but always in the Persian interest. The European 
Greeks were stirred by a desire to liberate their brethren in Asia, and 
this afforded a constant pretext for a Persian war. The forces of Athens 


THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


85 


and Ere / tria were now added to those of Aristagoras, who had, moreover, 
strengthened his cause by abdicating his tyranny, and aiding the other 
cities to assume the same free and popular government which he estab¬ 
lished at Miletus. The tyrants were every-where expelled, and the people 
sprang to arms. 

From Eph'esus the united forces marched up the valley of the Cay'ster, 
and swiftly crossing the mountains, took Sardis by surprise. The city 
was easily captured, but AFtapher'nes, the satrap, retired with a strong 
garrison to the castle, which, from its inaccessible rock, defied assault. 
A spark falling on the light reeds which formed the roofs of Sardis 
set fire to the town, and the invaders were compelled to retire. They 
were pursued and defeated with great loss by Artaphernes, in the battle 
of Ephesus. The Athenians now withdrew, but the war went on with 
undiminislied spirit. The inhabitants of Cyprus, the Carians and Caunians 
of the south-western corner of the peninsula made common cause with 
the Ionian, iEo'lian, and Hellespontine Greeks; Byzantium was taken, 
and the whole coast from the Thracian Bosphorus to the Gulf of Issus 
was for the moment free from Persian dominion. The brave Carians, 
though twice defeated with great loss, were victorious in a third battle, 
where a son-in-law of Darius was slain. But the power of the great king 
was at length triumphant. The fleet of the Ionians was defeated near 
Miletus, and the vengeance of the Persians was concentrated on this 
devoted city, the leader of the rebellion. After a long blockade, it 
was taken by storm in the sixth year of the revolt. 

35. The honor of the great king was now engaged to the punishment 
of those European Greeks who had intermeddled between himself and 
his subjects. It was the first time that the Athenians had come to the 
notice of Darius. He inquired who and what sort of men they were, and 
being told, he seized his bow and shot an arrow into the air, crying aloud, 
“O Supreme God, grant that I may avenge myself on the Athenians!” 
From that time a servant was instructed to say to him three times every 
day as he sat at table, “Sire, remember the Athenians!” 

36. In the spring of 492 B. C., a great force was intrusted for this 
purpose to Mardo'nius, son-in-law of Darius. Its immediate design failed, 
for the fleet was shattered at Mount Athos, and the army nearly destroyed' 
by the Brygians, a Thracian tribe. Thasos, however, was captured, and 
Macedonia was subjected to Persia. 

37. B. C. 490. A second great expedition, two years later, was con¬ 
ducted by Datis, accompanied by Artaphernes, son of the former satrap 

of that name, and nephew of the king. Having passed the sea, they fell 
first upon Eretria, which was taken by treachery, its temples burnt, and 
its inhabitants bound in chains for transportation to Asia. The first de¬ 
cisive trial of strength between Persia and the western Greeks took place 


86 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


at Mar'athon, in Attica. The Persians numbered 100,000 men, the Greeks 
but little more than 10,000. The Medo-Persian troops had hitherto been 
considered invincible; but that magnificent soldiery was now, to a certain 
extent, replaced by unwilling conscripts from conquered tribes, who 
marched, dug, or fought under the lash of overseers. Miltiades, who, as 
prince of the Chersonesus, had served in the Persian armies, well knew 
this element of weakness, and it was with just confidence in the superi¬ 
ority of his free Athenians that he gave orders for the battle. 

38. In the center, where the native Persians fought, they gained the 
advantage, and pursued the Athenians up one or two of the valleys which 
surround the base of Mount Kotro / ni; but, at the same time, both the 
right and left of the Asiatics were defeated by the Greeks, who, instead 
of pursuing, united their forces on the field to the relief of their center, 
and thus gained a complete victory. The Persians fled to their ships, now 
fiercely followed by the Greeks, and a still more furious contest ensued at 
the water’s edge. The Athenians sought to fire the fleet, but seven galleys 
only were destroyed; the rest, with the shattered remains of the army, made 
good their escape. 

30. The Persian commander did not lose his spirit in defeat. Encour¬ 
aged by a preconcerted signal of the partisans 
of Hip / pias, he sailed immediately around At¬ 
tica, hoping to surprise Athens in the absence 
of its defenders. But Miltiades, too, had seen 
the glittering shield raised upon a mountain- 
top, and guessed its meaning. Leaving Aris- 
tkdes with one tribe to guard the spoils of the 
battle-field, he led his army by a rapid night- 
march across the country to Athens. When 
Datis, the next morning, having doubled the 
point of Su'nium, sailed up the Athenian 
harbor, he saw upon the heights above the 
city the same victorious troops from whom 
his men had fled the evening before. He 
made no attempt to land, but sailed away 
with his Eretrian prisoners to the coasts of 
Asia. 

40. Rather angered than dismayed by these 
failures, Darius prepared to lead in person a 
still greater expedition against the Greeks. 
But a revolt in Egypt first diverted his atten¬ 
tion, and his death, in the following year, 
gave the free states of Europe time to complete their preparations for 
defense. B. C. 486. 



















































THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


87 


41. Many works and trophies of Darius remain in various parts of his 
empire. He was the first king who coined money in Persia. The golden 
and silver claries circulated not only throughout the empire but in Greece. 
The most interesting memorials are the two records in his own words of 
the events of his reign, engraven upon his tomb at Nakshi-rus / tam, and 
upon the great rock-tablet of BehistuiT. The latter is of the greater length; 
it consists of five columns, each containing from sixteen to nineteen para¬ 
graphs, written in three languages, Persian, Babylonian, and Scythic, or 
Tartar. These trilingual inscriptions, embracing the three great families 
of human speech, Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian, almost justify the claim 
made by Darius to universal empire. 

Note.— A specimen of the style of the great king may be of interest to the 
scholar. It should he stated that the Behistun cliff forms part of the Zagros 
mountain range between Babylon and Ecbatana. This great natural table of 
stone, which seems to have been expressly fitted for enduring records, is 1,700 
feet in perpendicular height, and bears four sets of sculptures, one of which is 
ascribed to Semiramis. The inscription of Darius is most important. It has 
been deciphered within a few years, with wonderful learning, industry, and 
patience, by Col. Sir Henry Rawlinson, of the British army. For many years 
after its existence was known, it was considered inaccessible, as it was 300 feet 
from the foot of the perpendicular wall, and it was necessary for the explorer 
to be drawn up with ropes by a windlass placed at the summit. Even when a 
copy was thus made, with great risk and inconvenience, the work was only 
begun, for the arrow-headed (cuneiform) characters in which the Persian lan¬ 
guage was written were as vet but partly understood. These difficulties have 
now been surmounted, and me common student can read the words ot “ Darius 
the King.” The whole inscription, in Persian and English, may be found in 
Rawlinson’s Herodotus, Voi. II, Appendix A few of the shorter paragraphs 

are here subjoined: • 

I. 8. “Says Darius the King: Within these countries the man who was good, 
him have I right well cherished. Whoever was evil, him have I utterly rooted 
out. By the grace of Ormazd, these are the countries by which my laws have 
been observed.” . 

I. 11. “Says Darius the King: Afterward there was a man, a Magian, named 

Gomates.He thus lied to the state: * I am Baides, the son of Cyrus, the 

brother of Cambyses.’ Then the whole state became rebellious.He seized 

the empire. Afterward Cambyses, unable to endure, died. 

I. 13. “Says Darius the King: There was not a man, neither Persian nor 
Median, nor any one of our family, who would dispossess that Gomates the 
Magian of the crown. The state feared him exceedingly. He slew many people 
who had known the old Bardes; for that reason he slew them, ‘lest they should 
recognize me that I am not Bardes, the son of Cyrus.’ No one dared say any 
thing concerning Gomates the Magian until I arrived. Then I piayed to Oi- 
mazd; Ormazd brought help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, 
thfen it was, with the help of my faithful men, that I slew that Gomates the 
Magian and those who were his chief followers. The fort named Sictachotes, in. 
the district of Media called Nissea, there I slew him. I dispossessed him of the 
empire; I became king. Ormazd granted me the scepter.” 

I 14. “Says Darius the King: The empire which had been taken away from 
our family, that I recovered. I established it in its place. As it was before, so I 
made it. The temples which Gomates the Magian had destroyed I rebuilt. The 





88 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


sacred offices of the state, both the religious chants and the worship, I restored 

to the people, which Gomates the Magiau had deprived them of.By the 

grace of Ormazd I did this.” , 

RECAPITULATION. 

Persian monotheism differed essentially from the Nature-worship ol the Hin¬ 
dus and the element*worship of the Medes; but under Darius and his successors 
the Magi gained exclusive control of religious rites, and luxuiy destioved the 
manly virtues of the people. Darius conquered western India, and invaded Eu¬ 
ropean Scythia, but without result. His detention of Histiaeus led to a six years’ 
revolt of all the Greeks of Asia Minor, aided by the Athenians and Eretrians. 
He failed in his first retaliatory enterprise against the European Greeks; and, 
in the second, the great decisive battle of Marathon ended in the oveitlnow of 
the Persians. The deatli of Darius postponed the Grecian wars. 


Reign of Xerxes I. 

42. XePxes, the Ahasue'rus of the Book of Esther, succeeded to his 

father’s dominions, instead of Artabaza / nes, his elder brother, who had 

been born before Darius’s accession to the throne. His first 
B. C. 486-465. 4 # # 

care was the crushing of the Egyptian revolt. This was 

accomplished in the second year ot his reign; a severer servitude was 

imposed, and his brother Achae'menes remained as his viceroy in the 

Valley of the Nile. The Babylonians attempted an insurrection, but 

dearly paid for their rashness with all the treasure of their temples. 

43. In the third year of his reign,* the king convened his satraps and 
generals, “the nobles and princes of the provinces,” at Susa, to delib¬ 
erate concerning the invasion of Greece. In their presence he detailed 
the motives of ambition and revenge which urged him against a people 
which had dared to defy his power, and declared his intention to march 
through Europe, from one end to the other, and make of all its lands one 
country. He believed that, the Greeks once conquered, no people in the 
world could stand against him, and thus the sun would no longer shine 
upon any land beyond his own. He concluded by commanding each 
general to make ready his forces, assuring them that he who appeared 
upon the appointed day with the most effective troop should receive the 
rewards most precious to every Persian. 

44. During four years all Asia, from the docks of Sidon and Tyre to the 
banks of the Indus, rang with notes of preparation. All races and tribes 
of the vast empire sent men and material. The maritime nations fur¬ 
nished the largest fleet which the Mediterranean had yet seen. The 
Phoenicians and Egyptians were charged with the construction of a double 
bridge of boats over the Hellespont, from Aby'dus, on the Asiatic, to a 
point between Sestus and Mad'ytus, on the European side of the strait. 


* See Esther i : 1-4. 




THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


89 


After this work was completed, a violent storm broke it to pieces and 
threw the shattered fragments upon the shore. The king, unused to being 
thwarted in any of his designs, caused the engineers to be beheaded, the 
sea scourged, and a pair of fetters, as a hint of the required submission, 
thrown into the offending waters. A new bridge, or, rather, pair of bridges, 
was now formed with still greater care. Two lines of ships, anchored at 
stem and stern, were united each by six great cables, which reached from 
shore to shore. They supported a platform of wood, which was covered 
with earth and protected by a balustrade. 

45. Another body of men, working under the lash of Persian overseers, 
were employed three years in cutting a canal from the Strymonic to the 
Singitic Bay, to sever Mount Athos from the mainland, and thus enable 
the fleet to avoid the strong and shifting currents and high seas which 
prevailed around the peninsula. Immense stores of provisions, collected 
from all parts of the empire, were deposited at suitable intervals along the 
line of march. 

46. The rendezvous of the troops was at CritaPla, in Cappadocia, whence 
they were moved forward to Sardis. In the autumn of 481 B. C., Xerxes 
arrived at the latter capital, and early in the following spring set his vast 
army in motion toward the Hellespont. Near the person of the king were 
the ten thousand Immortals, whose entire armor glittered with gold. He 
was preceded by the Chariot of the Sun, in which no mortal dared seat 
himself, drawn by eight snow-white horses. 

47. At Abydus the king surveyed, from his throne of white marble ele¬ 
vated upon a hill, the countless multitudes which thronged the plain, and 
the myriads of sails that studded the Hellespont. The momentary pride 
that swelled his breast, with the consciousness that he was supreme lord 
of all that host, gave way to a more worthy emotion as he reflected that 
the whole life of those myriads upon earth was almost as transitory as their 
passage of the bridge, which lay before him, connecting the known with the 
unknown continent. Early the next morning perfumes were burnt and 
myrtle boughs strewn upon the bridges, while the army awaited in silence 
the rising of the sun. When it appeared, Xerxes, with head uncovered — 
excelling, not only in rank, but in strength, stature, and beauty, all his 
host — poured a libation into the sea, praying, meanwhile, with his face 
toward the rising orb, that no disaster might befall his arms until he had 
penetrated to the uttermost boundaries of Europe. Having prayed, he 
cast the golden cup and a Persian cimeter into the sea, and gave a signal 
for the army to march. 

48. So numerous was the host that, marching day and night without 
intermission, and goaded by the whip, it occupied seven days in crossing 
the straits by the two bridges. On the Thracian plain of Doris'cus, near 
the sea, the army was drawn up for a final review. The land force con- 


90 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


sisted of forty-six nations. According to Herodotus, who gathered his 
information by most careful inquiry of persons who were present, the foot 
soldiers numbered 1,700,000; the war-chariots and camels, 20,000; the 
horse, 80,000. The fleet consisted of 1,207 triremes, and 3,000 smaller 
vessels, carrying in all 517,610 men. Beside this actual fighting force, we 
must suppose an equal number of slaves, attendants, and the crews of 
provision ships, making a total of more than five millions of human 
beings. 

49. Several rivers were dried in giving drink to this multitude, while 
their food, even the scanty allowance of Asiatic slaves, amounted to 
662,000 bushels of flour each day; but the excellent commissariat of 
Xerxes, which had been organizing for seven years, was not at fault. 
On the march from Doriscus toward Greece, the king, still within his 
own empire, received further accessions from Thracian, Macedonian, and 
other European tribes, so that his fighting force at Thermopylae amounted 
to 2,640,000 men. Various cities along the route had been commanded to 
furnish each one meal for the army; and although they had spent years 
in preparation, some were ruined by the expense. * 

50. Meanwhile the Greeks had not been idle. The ten years since the 
battle of Marathon had been employed in active drilling of forces, by sea 
and land. Each state furnished its quota; and though but a handful 
compared with the myriads of invaders, they had the strength, derived 
from patriotism and high discipline, to oppose the mere material mass 
and weight of the Persian host. It was mind against matter. 

51. Abandoning the defense of Thessaly, which was open by too many 

B c 4 so avenues to the Persians, the little army of Leon'idas, king 

of Sparta, had made a resolute stand at Thermopylae, a 
narrow pass between Mount (Eta and the sea. The whole force amounted 
to only 6,000 men, of whom but 300 were Spartans. Xerxes waited several 
days upon the Trachinian plain, expecting that this little band would melt 
away from mere terror at the sight of his vast numbers. At length he sent 
the Median cavalry to force a passage. They were repulsed with loss. The 
Immortals made the same attempt with no better success. At this point, 
EphiaPtes, a Malian, offered for a large reward to show the invaders a 
mountain-path by which they could reach the rear of the Spartan camp. 
The Phocian guards of this path were overpowered. Leonidas learned that 
he was betrayed, and declaring that he and his Spartans must remain at 
their post, dismissed all the rest of his army except the Thespians and 
Thebans. Then, before the body of Persians who were crossing the 
mountain, under lead of the traitor, could attack him from behind, he 
threw himself upon the enemy in front, resolving to exact as dear a veil- 


*One of these repasts cost half a million of dollars. 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


91 


geance as possible. Many of the Persian host fell beneath the Spartan 
swords, many were trodden to death by their own multitudes, and many 
were forced into the sea. Leonidas soon fell, and the contest for his body 
inspired his men with new fury. Having recovered it, they placed their 
backs against a wall of stone and fought until every man was slain. 

52. During the same days several battles were fought at sea between 
the Greek and Persian fleets. No decisive advantage was gained by either 
side, but the result was most disheartening to the Persians, who had been 
most confident of success. The elements, too, had neither been scourged 
nor scolded into good behavior; a terrible hurricane raged three days and 
nights upon the coast of Thessaly, tearing the ships from their moorings 
and dashing them against the cliffs. At least four hundred ships of war 
were thus destroyed, beside a countless number of transports with their 
stores and treasures. Another squadron of two hundred vessels, which had 
been sent around Euboea to cut off the retreat of the Greeks, perished, in 
a sudden tempest, upon the rocks. The Grecian commanders were unable 
to profit by these advantages, for the defeat at Thermopylae compelled 
them to withdraw from Artemis'ium to provide for the safety of Attica 
and the Peloponnesus. 

53. By the death of the Spartan three hundred, the gates of Greece were 
thrown open, and the hosts of Asia poured through, wasting the country 
with fire and sword. At Pano / peus a detachment was sent to plunder the 
temple of Apollo at Delphi, while Xerxes led his main army through 
Boeo / tia. On the march he received the submission of all the people 
except the Plataeans and Thespians, who, rather than yield to an invader, 
abandoned their cities to be burnt. Before his arrival at Athens, the chief 
object of his revenge, the king heard of the total defeat of his Delphian 
expedition. According to Greek tradition, no mortal hand turned back 
the invaders, but Apollo himself hurled down great rocks and crags upon 
their heads, in the dark ravines ol Parnassus, and thus defended his 
sanctuary. 

54. Athens was a deserted city. All the fighting men were with the 
fleet, while women, children, and infirm persons had been B c 480> 
removed to Salamis, iEgPna, or Trceze / ne. The conqueror, 

stormed the citadel, plundered and burnt the temples, and sent word to 
Susa that Athens had shared the fate of Sardis. 

55. Xerxes now resolved upon a decisive naval battle in the Saronic 
Gulf, "the Grecian fleet had assembled off Salamis, to the number of 378 
Vessels, while the Persians numbered 1,200. A throne was erected on the 
mainland, upon the slope of Mount ^Egaleos, from which the great king 
beheld the struggle which was to end his dreams of conquest. The Pei 
sian fleet occupied the channel between Salamis and the coast of Attica. 
Their vast numbers, crowded into so narrow a space, were a fatal disad- 


92 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


vantage to themselves, for they could only come near the Greeks by small 
detachments; while the latter, more accustomed to those waters, drove 
their brazen-pointed prows into the sides of the Persians, advancing and 
retiring with wonderful dexterity and surety of aim. Feeling the eye of 
their king upon them, the Persians fought with desperate bravery. The 
battle lasted all day; when night fell, Xerxes saw his forces scattered or 
destroyed, and instead of renewing the battle, resolved to seek his own 
safety in retreat. 

50. Mardonius engaged to complete the conquest of Greece with 300,900 
men. The fleet was ordered to the Hellespont, and the king with the re¬ 
mainder of his forces set out for home. His magazines had been exhausted, 
and during this forced retreat many died of hunger. Forty-five days after 
his departure from Attica he arrived at the Hellespont, and finding his 
second bridge of boats destroyed, returned to Asia by ship. He entered 
Sardis at the end of the year 480, humbled and depressed, only eight 
months from the time when he left it lull of vain hopes of subduing the 
western world. 

57. The operations of Mardonius will be more fully detailed in the His¬ 
tory of Greece;* a mere outline is here presented. Wintering in Thessaly, 
he sought by magnificent promises to detach the Athenians from the Greek 
interests. Diplomacy failing, his army was at once poured into Attica, 
filling Athens, whose inhabitants had taken refuge again at Salamis. He 
destroyed the beautiful city by fire, completing the destruction which 
Xerxes had begun. Then finding that the Greeks were concentrating 
their forces at the Isthmus, he retired into Boeotia, where, in September, 
479, the great battle of Platoe'a was fought. Mardonius was slain and his 
forces routed with terrible carnage. The last remnant of the Persian fleet 
was similarly routed at Myc'ale, on the opposite side of the iEgean, and 
the deliverance of Europe was complete. No Persian army henceforth 
trod the soil of European Greece, and for twelve years no Persian sail 
appeared in the iEgean. 

58. Having spent his own best strength and that of his empire in this 
disastrous war, Xerxes made no further effort for military glory, but gave 
himself up to luxurious indolence. The highest rewards were offered to 
him who could invent a new pleasure. His subjects followed the example 
of their king; the empire was weakened by licentiousness and distracted 
by violence. It was only a fitting close to such a reign, when, at the end 
of twenty years, Xerxes was murdered by Artaba'nus, the captain of his 
guard, and AspamFtres, his chamberlain. 

59. Reign of Artaxerxes I. B. C. 465-425. The assassins placed 
upon the throne the youngest son of their victim, Artaxerxes Longimanus, 


* See pp. 142-144. 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


93 


or the Long-Handed. The eldest son, Darius, was executed on a false 
charge of having murdered his father. The second, Hystas'pes, claimed 
the crown, but was defeated and slain in battle. The crimes of the real 
assassins were proved against them, and they were punished with death. 
Artaxerxes enjoyed an undisputed reign of forty years, during which the 
power of the empire declined, notwithstanding his beneficent efforts to 
promote the interests of his people. 

00. Egyptian Revolt. In the early part of his reign Egypt revolted 

under I'narus, son of PsammePichus, who was aided bv the 

7 * B. C. 460. 

Athenians. Acliaemenes, brother of the king, was sent with 

a great army to punish the rebellion; but he was defeated and slain by the 

hand of Inarus in the battle of Papre'mis, and a vast number of Persians 

perished. The remainder of the army were shut up in the White Castle at 

Memphis, and suffered a siege of three years. A new force, led by Mega- 

by'zus, was more successful: Memphis was relieved, Inarus B ^ 

taken, and the Athenian fleet destroyed. Amyrta/us, the 

ally of Inarus, held out six years longer m the marshes of the Delta, 

until, by the intervention of Athens, peace was made. The Persians were 

defeated with great loss off Salamis, in Cyprus, and consented to very 

humiliating terms. They engaged not to visit with fleet or army the 

western shores of Asia Minor, bu to respect the independence of the 

Asiatic Greeks. Even the leader of the revolt was punished only by the 

loss of his principality. 

61 . Contrary to the solemn agreement of Megabyzus, Inarus, after five 
years at the Persian court, was given up, with fifty Athenian companions, 
to the vengeance of the queen-mother, and suffered a barbarous death for 
having slain Acliaemenes. Disgusted by this violation of his honor, Mega¬ 
byzus stirred up a revolt in his province of Syria. He was the greatest 
general in the empire, and the success of his operations against the forces 
sent to subdue him, so alarmed his master that he was permitted to dictate 
his own terms of peace. The intercessions of his wife, An/ytis, sister of the 
king, aided much in his reconciliation ; but the example was ruinous to the 
strict organization of the provinces which Darius had introduced. The 
tendencies to decay now acted with greater and greater rapidity. 

62 . In the seventh year of Artaxerxes’ reign, a new migration of Jews 
was led from Babylon by Ezra, a man of priestly lineage and high in favor 
at the Persian court. Laden with contributions from the Jews of Baby¬ 
lonia, he arrived in Jerusalem with great treasures for the completion of the 
temple, and for the reestablishment of civil government throughout the 
country. He found that the people had allied themselves with the neigh¬ 
boring tribes by marriage, and insisted on the immediate dismissal of all 
heathen members from Jewish households. 

68 . The defeat of the Persians at Cyprus, 449 B. C., operated to a certain 


94 


ANCIENT HIST OR Y. 


degree in favor of the Jews; for all the maritime ports of the empire having . 
been ceded, the natural fortress of Zion, commanding the roads between 
Egypt and the capital, became of great importance. Hitherto the Persian 
monarchs had forbidden Jerusalem to be fortified, but in the twentieth 
year of Artaxerxes’ reign, NehemPah, the Jewish cup-bearer of the great 
kins: received a commission to rebuild its walls. He moved with great 
celerity and secrecy, for the neighboring Samaritans, Ammonites, and 
Arabians, no longer awed, as formerly, by a decree of the empire, vio¬ 
lently opposed the work. Laboring by night, with tools in one hand and 
weapons in the other, the Jews of every rank gave themselves so zealously 
to the task, that in fifty-two days Jerusalem was inclosed by walls and 
towers strong enough to defy her foes. (Nehemiah i-v : 16.) 

Meanwhile Ezra, relieved from the civil command, labored at his great 
work, the collection and editing of the Sacred Books. During the cap¬ 
tivity many writings had been lost, among them the Book of Jaslier, that 
of “The Wars of the Lord/’ the writings of Gad and Iddo, the prophets, 
and the works of Solomon on Natural History The sacred books which 
remained were arranged in three great divisions: the Law, the Prophets, 
and the Hagiographa; the latter including Job, the Psalms, and Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Ruth, Daniel, and the Chronicles. The Books of 
Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther were afterward added, and the canon 
elosed. 

64. On the departure of Nehemiah the old disorders returned. Ezra 
died; the high priest allied himself with the deadliest enemy of the 
Jewish faith, TobPah the Ammonite, to whom he gave lodgings in the 
temple. The Sabbath was broken; Tyrian traders sold their merchandise 
in the gates of Jerusalem on the Holy Day. Nehemiah returned with the 
power of a satrap, and with his usual skill reformed these abuses. He 
expelled Manasseh, who had now become high priest, because he had 
married a daughter of Sanballat the Horonite. The pagan father-in-law 
hereupon built a rival temple on the summit of Mount Gerizim, of which 
Manasseh became high priest. The bitter hatred arising from this schism 
continued for centuries, and did not cease even with the destruction of the 
temple at Jerusalem, A. D. 70. “The Jews had no dealings with the Sa¬ 
maritans.” From the time of the division there was no more intermingling 
of pagan elements in the religion and customs of Judaea. The Hebrews 
became not only the most rigidly monotheistic, but, in spite of their later 
wanderings, the most nearly isolated of all the nations. 

65. Xerxes II. Artaxerxes died B. C. 425, and was succeeded by his 
son, Xerxes II. After a reign of only forty-five days, the young king 
was assassinated by his half-brother, Sogdia / nus; and the funeral train 
of his father was overtaken, on its way to the royal tombs at Persepolis, 
by his own. 




THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


95 


66 . Sogdianus. B. C. 425, 424. The murderer enjoyed the fruits of 
his crime but little more than half a year. Another half-brother, O'chus, 
revolted with the satraps of Egypt and Armenia and the general of the 
royal cavalry. Sogdianus was deposed and put to death. 

67. Darius II. B. C. 424-405. Ochus, ascending the throne, took the 
name of Darius, to which the Greeks added the contemptuous surname 
No'thus. This prince spent the nineteen years of his reign under the/ 
control of his wife, Parysa'tis, who surpassed her mother, Amas'tris, in 
wickedness and cruelty. The empire, meanwhile, was shaken by continual 
revolts, and the means that were taken to quell them compromised instead 
of confirming the integrity of the nation. Promises were made which were 
never intended to be kept, for the purpose of leading on the rebellious 
satraps to their destruction ; and the tools of these falsehoods, instead of 
resenting, like Megabyzus, the loss of their honor, gladly accepted the 
spoils of their victims. The precautions of Darius I were disregarded; 
civil and military powers were combined in the same person, and two or 
three countries were often united under the rule of one satrap. These 
great governments, descending often from father to son, became more like 
independent kingdoms than provinces of the empire. 

68 . The Medes, after more than a century of submission to Persian rule, 
attempted to free themselves, B. C. 408, but were defeated. The Egyptians, 
being more distant, were more successful. Always the most discontented 
of the Persian provinces, their opposition was even more a matter of re¬ 
ligion than of patriotism, and was constantly fomented by the priests. 
Under two successive dynasties of native kings, they were now able to 
maintain their independence nearly sixty years. B. C. 405-346. 

69. While the empire was undergoing these losses, it gained a great 
advantage in the recovery of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Athe¬ 
nians and Spartans had been wasting their forces against each other in the 
Peloponnesian war (B. C. 431-404), which, more than any regard to their 
engagements, had interrupted their hostile attempts against Persia. The 
power of Athens was now broken by disasters in Sicily; and the Lydian 
satrap, TissaphePnes, seized the occasion to cultivate the alliance of Sparta, 
and aid the Athenian colonies, Lesbos, Chios, and Erythrse, in their in¬ 
tended revolt. Pharnaba'zus, satrap of the Hellespontine provinces, pur¬ 
sued the same course; and through the rivalry of the two Greek states, 
their ancienf enemy gained undisputed possession of “all Asia.” 

Cyrus, the younger son of the king, becoming satrap of Phrygia, Lydia, 
and Cappadocia, used his wealth and power without reserve to aid the 
Lacedemonians and humble the Athenians. He declared to Lysan der, 
the Spartan admiral, that if it were needful he would sell his very throne, 
or coin it into money, to meet the expenses of the war. This liberality 
had another cause than friendship. The Spartans were esteemed the best 


96 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


soldiers in the world, and Cyrus was preparing for a bold and difficult 
movement in which he wanted their assistance. 

70 . This young prince had been “born in the purple,” while his elder 
brother had been born before their father’s accession to the throne. With 
this pretext, which had availed in the case of Xerxes I, his mother, Pary- 
satis, whose favorite he was, strove in vain to persuade Darius to name him 
his successor in the empire. Cyrus assumed royal state in his province; 
and though naturally haughty and cruel, he managed to gain the affection 
of his courtiers by his amiable manners, while his more brilliant qualities 
commanded their admiration. Darius, alarmed by his son’s unbounded 
ambition, recalled him to the capital, which he reached only in time to 
witness his father’s death and his brother’s accession to the throne. 

71 . B. C. 405-359. Artaxerxes II was called Mnemon, for his won¬ 
derful memory. His first royal act was to cast his brother into prison, 
upon a report, probably too well founded, that he was plotting against the 
life of the king. Cyrus was condemned to die, but his mother, who had 
instigated the plot, plead for him with such effect, that Artaxerxes not 
only spared his life, but sent him back to his satrapy. If Cyrus was am¬ 
bitious and rebellious before, he had now the additional motive of revenge 
urging him to dethrone his brother and reign in his stead. He raised an 
army of Greek mercenaries, for a pretended expedition against the robbers 
of Pisid'ia, and set out from Sardis in the spring of 401. 

Artaxerxes was informed of his movements by Tissapliernes, and was 
well prepared to meet him. The Greeks learned the real object of their 
B march too late to draw back. The army passed through 

Phrygia and Cilicia, entered Syria by the mountain-passes 
near Issus, crossed the Euphrates at Thap'sacus, and advanced to the plain 
of Cunax'a, about fifty-seven miles from Babylon. Here he encountered 
a royal army at least four times as numerous as his own. The Greeks 
sustained their ancient renown by utterly routing the Asiatics who were 
opposed to them; but Cyrus, rashly penetrating to the Persian center, 
where his brother commanded in person, was stricken down by one of the 
royal guard. He had already wounded the king. Artaxerxes commanded 
his head and traitorous right hand to be cut off, and his fate ended the 
battle. 

72 . The Grecian auxiliaries who had been entrapped into the war by 
Cyrus now found themselves in a perilous position. Their Persian allies 
were scattered ; they were in the heart of an unknown and hostile country, 
two thousand miles from home, and surrounded by the victorious army of 
Artaxerxes. The wily Tissaphernes, who had been rewarded with the 
dominions of Cyrus, detained them nearly a month by false pretenses of 
negotiation; and having led them as far as the head-waters of the Tigris, 
gained possession of all their officers, whom he caused to be put to death. 



ip~hates2f t 


!iir.ni< 


-^SIM \ 
Antioch 


adracartaO 


lEelTatana 


Calah/5' 
■Asxhva- 


Ihagai 


tueoauA 


uascus 


\spailana 


Grt-hoe 1 


ougeb i 


iPerAipoiig 


85 Greenwich. 


80 -Cram 


East 


EMMEE 

of the 

PERSIANS. 


JOO 200 300 400 500 600 

i_i_i_i_i_i 


Scale of Miles. 


Alexander’s March, 

A^ as l 


>0 


ir. >r. v. DBi.. 


















































































































THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


97 


At this crisis, the Athenian Xen'ophon, who had accompanied the army 
of Cyrus, though not as a soldier, called together the principal Greeks at 
midnight, and urged the election of new officers who should lead them 
back to their native land. The suggestion was adopted; five generals were 
chosen, of whom Xenophon was one, and by break of day the army had 
been mustered for its homeward march. 

Here began the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, celebrated in the annals 
of war as, perhaps, the most remarkable instance of an enterprise con¬ 
ducted against prodigious obstacles, with perfect coolness, valor, and 
success. Tissaphernes with his army hung upon their rear, hostile bar¬ 
barians were in front, and to the fatigues of the march were added the 
perils of frequent battles. Their course lay over the table-lands of Arme¬ 
nia, where many perished in the freezing north winds, or were blinded by 
the unusual glare of snow. The survivors pressed on with indomitable 
spirit, until, ascending a mountain south of Tra'pezus, they beheld, far 
away to the north-west, the dark waters of the Euxine. Their greatest 
perils were now over; a joyous cry, “The sea! the sea!” arose from the 
front rank and was quickly caught up by those behind. Officers and 
soldiers embraced each other with tears of joy; and all united to erect 
upon this happy lookout a monument of the trophies collected during 
their wearisome journey. 

73 . By their part in the rebellion of Cyrus, however involuntary, the 
Spartans had given unpardonable offense to Artaxerxes, and they resolved 
to be the first movers in the war which must ensue. Securing the services 
of the Ten Thousand, they attacked the Persians in Asia Minor with a 
success which promised a speedy end to their dominion. But Persia had 
grown wiser since the days of Xerxes, and fought the Greeks not so much 
with her unwieldy masses of troops as with subtle intrigue. By means of 
skillful emissaries well supplied with gold, she brought about a league 
between the secondary states of Greece — Argos, Corinth, Athens, and 
Thebes — which at once overbalanced the power of Sparta. Persian ships 
had part in the battle of Cnidus, by which the confederates gained the 
dominion of the sea. B C. 394. Sparta was reduced to ac- R c ^ 
cepting the humiliating peace of AntaPcidas, by which the 

Asiatic Greeks were left under the control of Persia, and the great king 
gained an authoritative voice in all quarrels between the Grecian states. 

74 . Artaxerxes was haunted by the desire to restore the empire to its 
greatest extent under Darius Hystaspes. He reoccupied Samos, which he 
intended as a stepping-stone to the rest of the Greek islands; and sent a 
grekt^expedition into Egypt under the joint command of Iphic / rates, an 
Athenian, and Pharnabazus, a Persian general. This enterprise failed, 
partly through the jealousies of the two commanders; and the failure 
hastened a revolt in the western satrapies, which came near to overturn 

A. H.—7 


98 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the empire. Egypt now retaliated, and attempted to revive her ancient 
glories by the conquest of Syria and Phoenicia. But these movements 
were defeated by management and gold, and Artaxerxes left his dominion 
with nearly the same boundaries which it had at the beginning of his 
reign. 

75. Reign of Artaxerxes III. B. C. 359-338. The death of Arta¬ 
xerxes II was followed by the usual crimes and atrocities which attended a 
change upon the Persian throne. His youngest son, Ochus, seized the 
crown after the murder of his eldest and the suicide of his second brother. 
He assumed the name of Artaxerxes III, and by his energy and spirit did 
much to retrieve the failing prosperity of the empire. He did not, how¬ 
ever, abate the inherent sources of its weakness in the corruptions of the 
court. Family affection had been replaced by jealousy and hatred. The 
first act of Ochus was the extermination of his own roval race, in order 
that no rival might remain to dispute his throne. His more ambitious 
enterprises were delayed by a revolt of Artabazus in Asia Minor, which 
was abetted by Athens and Thebes. The defeated satrap fled to Philip of 
Macedon, whose ready protection and Ochus’s retaliatory measures led to 
the most important results. These will be detailed in Book IV. 

76. About B. C. 351, Ochus was ready to attempt the subjugation of 
Egypt. He was defeated in his first campaign, and retired into Persia 
to recruit his forces. This retreat was the signal for innumerable revolts. 
Phoenicia placed herself under the independent government of the king 
of Sidon; Cyprus set up nine native sovereigns; in Asia Minor a dozen 
separate kingdoms were asserted, if not established. But the spirit of 
Artaxerxes III was equal to the occasion. He raised a second armament, 
hired ten thousand Greek mercenaries, and proceeded in person to war 
against Phoenicia and Egypt. Sidon was taken and Phoenicia subdued. 
Mentor the Rhodian, who, in the service of the king of Egypt was aiding 
the Sidonians, went over to the Persians with four thousand Greeks. 
Egypt was then invaded with more success. Nectanebo was defeated and 
expelled, and his country again reduced to a Persian satrapy. 

77. Most of the later victories of Artaxerxes were due to the valor of his 
Greek auxiliaries, or to the treachery or incapacity of his opponents. After 
the reestablishment of his government, he abandoned himself to the pleas¬ 
ures of his palace, while the control of affairs rested exclusively with Ba- 
go'as, his minister, and Mentor, his general. The people were only reminded 
from time to time of his existence by some unusually bloody mandate. What¬ 
ever hope might have been inspired by his really great abilities, was dis¬ 
appointed at once by his unscrupulous violence and indolent self-indulgence. 
He died of poison by the hand of Bagoas, B. C. 338. 

78. Arses. B. C. 338-336. The perfidious minister destroyed not merely 
th-e king himself, but all the royal princes except Ar'ses, the youngest. 


THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 


99 


whom he placed upon the throne, believing that, as a mere boy, he would 
be subservient to his control. After two years he was alarmed by some 
signs of independent character in his pupil, and added Arses to the 
number of his victims. He now conferred the sovereignty upon Darius 
Codoman / nus, a grandson of Darius II, whom he regarded as a friend, but 
who commenced his reign by an act of summary justice, in the execution 
of the wretch to whom he owed his crown. B. C. 336. 

79. Reign of Darius III. B. C. 336-331. As has often happened in 
the world’s history, one of the best of the Persian kings had to bear the 
results of the tyrannies of his predecessors. Darius was not more distin¬ 
guished for his personal beauty than for the uprightness and benevolence 
of his character; and as satrap of Armenia, before his accession to the 
throne, he had won great applause both for his bravery as a soldier and 
his skill as a general. But the Greeks, whose reasons for hostility against 
the Persians had been two hundred years accumulating, had now, at last, 
a leader more ambitious than Xerxes, and more able than Cyrus. Already, 
before Darius had mounted the throne, Alexander the Great had succeeded 
his father in Macedon, had been appointed general-in-cliief of all the Greek 
forces, and had commenced his movement against Asia. 

80. The Persian monarch despised the presumption of an inexperienced 
boy, and made no effort, by aiding the European enemies of Alexander, to 
crush the new foe in his cradle. The satraps and generals shared the con¬ 
fidence of their master, and though a large force was collected in Mysia, 
no serious opposition w r as made to his passage of the Hellespont. In 
B. C. 334, Alexander with his 35,000 Greeks crossed the strait which had 
been passed by Xerxes, with his five millions, less than 150 years before. 
The Greek army w r as scarcely more inferior to the Persian in number 
than superior in efficiency. It was composed of veteran troops in the 
highest possible state of equipment and discipline, and every man was 
filled with enthusiastic devotion to his leader and confidence of success. 

Memnon, a brother of Mentor the Rhodian, with the satraps Spithrida'tes 
and ArsPtes, commanded the Persians in Asia Minor. Their first collision 
with Alexander was in the attempt to prevent his passage of the GranPcus, 
a little Mysian river which flow's into the Propon'tis. They were totally 
defeated, and Alexander, advancing southward, subdued, or rather liberated 
all the cities of the western coast without long delay. Halicarnassus, under 
the command of Memnon, made an obstinate resistance, and it was only at 
the end of autumn that it surrendered. Memnon then resolved to carry the 
war into Greece./ He gathered a large fleet and captured many islands in 
the HDgean; but his death at Mytile'ne relieved Alexander of the most able 
of his opponents. 

81 . The king of Macedon wintered at GoPdium, wffiere he cut or untied 
the celebrated knot, which an ancient prophecy had declared could never 

L of O. 


100 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


be loosened except by the conqueror of Asia. With fresh reinforcements 
from Greece, he commenced his second campaign, in the spring of 333, by 
marching through Cappadocia and Cilicia to the gates of Syria. Darius 
met him, in the narrow plain of Issus, with an army of half a million 
men. Hemmed in between the mountains, the river, and the sea, the 
Persian horsemen could not act, and their immense numbers were rather 
an incumbrance than an advantage. Darius was defeated and fled across 
the Euphrates. His mother, wife, and children fell into the hands of the 
conqueror, who treated them with the utmost delicacy and respect. 

82. B. C. 333-331. The conquests of Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt, which' 
Alexander now accomplished in less than two years, will be described in 
the Macedonian history. In the spring of 331, he retraced his triumphant 
march through Syria, crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus, traversed Mes¬ 
opotamia, and met Darius again on the great Assyrian plain east of the 
Tigris. The Persian king had spent the twenty months which had inter¬ 
vened since the battle of Issus in mustering the entire force of his empire. 
The ground was carefully selected as most favorable to the movements of 
cavalry, and as giving him the full advantage of his superior numbers. A 
large space was leveled and hardened with rollers for the evolutions of the- 
scythe-armed chariots. An important part of the infantry was formed of 
the brave and hardy mountaineers of Afghanistan, Bokhara, Khiva, and 
Thibet; and the cavalry, of the ancestors of the modern Kurds and Turco¬ 
mans, a race always distinguished for bold and skillful horsemanship. A 
brigade of Greek auxiliaries was alone considered able to withstand the 
charge of Alexander’s phalanx. Altogether the forces of Darius numbered 
more than a million of men, and they surpassed all former general levies 
of the Persians in the efficient discipline which enabled them to act together- 
as one body. 

83. The Macedonian phalanx, which formed the center of Alexander’s 
army, was the most effective body of heavy-armed troops known to ancient 
tactics. The men were placed sixteen deep, armed with the sarissa, or long 
pike, twenty-four feet in length. When set for action, the spear-heads of 
the first six ranks projected from the front. In receiving a charge, the- 
shield of each man, held over the head with the left arm, overlapped that 
of his neighbor; so that the entire body resembled a monster clothed in the 
shell of a tortoise and the bristles of a porcupine. So long as it held to¬ 
gether, the phalanx was invincible. Whether it advanced its vast weight 
upon an enemy like a solid wall of steel bristling with spear-points, or, 
kneeling, with each pike planted in the ground, awaited the attack, few 
dared to encounter it. 

84. Battle of Arbela. On the morning of the 1st of October, B. C. 
331, the two great forces met upon the plain of Gaugame'la. Alexander 
fought at the head of his cavalry, on the right of his army. Darius, in 


101 


THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

the Persian center, animated liis men both by word and example. Both 
sides fought with wonderful bravery, but the perfect discipline of the 
Macedonians gained at length a complete victory. The Persian war- 
chariots, which, with long scythes extending from their wheels, were in¬ 
tended to make great havoc among the Greek horse, were rendered useless 
bv a detachment of light-armed troops trained for the purpose, who, first 
wounding horses and drivers with their javelins, ran beside the horses and 
cut the traces or seized the reins, while the few which reached the Mace¬ 
donian front were allowed to pass between files which opened to receive 
them, and were easily captured in the rear. Five brigades of the phalanx 
bore down the Greek mercenaries who were opposed to them, and pene¬ 
trated to the Persian center, where Darius commanded in person. The 
king’s charioteer was killed by a javelin; he himself mounted a fleet horse 
and galloped from the field. 

Elsewhere the issue of the day was much more doubtful for Alexander; 
but the news of Darius’s flight disheartened his officers, and spurred the 
Macedonians, who were outnumbered and almost overpowered, to fresh 
exertions. A party of Persian and Indian horsemen, who were plundering 
the Macedonian camp, were put to flight by a reserve corps of the phalanx. 
The fugitive king, followed at length by his whole army, directed his course 
to the city of Arbe'la, twenty miles distant, where his military treasures were 
deposited. The river Ly'cus lay in their way, crossed only by a narrow 
bridge, and the number of Persians drowned in this rapid stream exceeded 
even those who had perished upon the battle-field. 

85. The next day Alexander arrived at Arbela and took possession of its 
treasures. The Persian king, unhappily for himself, had escaped a generous 
conqueror only to fall into the hands of his treacherous satrap Bes'sus. This 
man had led a division of the Persian army in the battle of Arbela, but 
finding his master’s fortunes ruined, had plotted with some fellow-officers 
to seize his person, and either put him to death or deliver him to Alexander, 
hoping thus to gain for themselves important commands. Loaded with 
chains, the unhappy king was carried away by his servants in their flight 
toward Hyrca / nia; but Alexander’s troops pressed them closely, and finding 
escape impossible, they mortally wounded their captive and left him by the 
road-side to die. 

The former lord of Asia was indebted to a Macedonian soldier, who 
brought him a cup of cold water, for the last act of attendance. He assured 
the man that his inability to reward this service added bitterness to his 
dying moments; but commended him to Alexander, whose generosity he 
himself had proved, and who would not fail to honor this his last request. 
The conqueror came up while the lifeless remains of Darius still lay by the 
road-side. Deeply moved, he threw his own royal mantle over the body of 
his foe, and ordered that a magnificent procession should convey the last of 


102 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the Persian kings to the tomb of his fathers. In the battle of Arbela the 
Persian empire fell. The reduction of the provinces occupied the few re¬ 
maining years of Alexander’s life; but their submission was certain from 
the moment when the forces of Asia were put to flight and their monarch 
was a captive. 


recapitulation. 

Xerxes, having re-conquered Egypt and laid all his empire under contribution, 
Jed into Europe the largest army which the world has seen. He gained the pass 
of Thermopylae by treachery, but his fleet was shattered by storms and utterly 
defeated at Salamis. The war ended, the following year, in the overthrow of 
Mardonius at Plataea, and the destruction of a Persian fleet and army at Mycale. 
The forty years’ reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus began the decline of the empire. 
A fresh immigration of liberated Jews re-fortified Jerusalem, and the books of the 
Old Testament were for the first time collected and arranged. The feud with the 
Samaritans was perpetuated by their building a rival temple on Mount Gerizim. 
In the reign of Darius II many provinces revolted, and Egypt remained inde¬ 
pendent sixty years. Upon the death of Darius, his younger son Cyrus, with the 
aid of 10,000 Spartan mercenaries, made war upon his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
but he was defeated and slain at Cunaxa. A general war followed, in which 
Sparta was humbled by the combined forces of Persia and the minor states of 
Greece, and the treaty of Antalcidas made the great king arbiter in Grecian 
affairs. Artaxerxes III, having murdei’ed all his kindred, re-conquered Syria, 
Phoenicia, and Egypt. He was destroyed, with all his children, by Bagoas, his 
minister, who conferred the sovereignty on Darius Codornannus. This last of the 
Achaemenidse was defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus, and finally at Ar¬ 
bela; and all the dominions of Persia became parts of the Macedonian Empire. 


QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 


Book II. 

1. Who and what were the Persians?. 

2. What were their relations with the Medes? . . Book I, 39 ; Book 

3. What led to the revolution in the Medo-Persian dominion ? 

4. Describe the wars of Cyrus. 

5. His treatment of the Lydians. 

6. What led to the return of the Jews?. 

7. What was the character of Cambyses? .... 

8. Describe his Egyptian campaign. 

9. His operations beyond Egypt. 

10 . His behavior at Memphis. 

11. The Magian revolt. 

12. The last days of Cambyses. 

13. The reign and dethronement of the false Smerdis 

14. The revolts against Darius Hystaspes. 

15. His system of government. 

16. His court and retinue. 

17. Compare the religious systems of the Persians, Hindus, and Medes 

18. What causes of corruption in the Persian court? . 


! 1 . 

11 , 2 . 

3, 4. 

5, 7, 9. 

6 . 

8 . 

12 . 

13. 

14, 15. 
16. 

17. 

18. 

19 . 

20 . 

21 , 22 . 
23, 24. 
25-28. 
29. 













QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 


103 


19. Describe the wars of Darius I.gg 30-32. 

20. The causes and incidents of the Ionian revolt.33, 34. 

21. The Persian measures of revenge against the Athenians. . 35-40. 

22. The memorials of Darius Hystaspes. .... 41 and Note. 

23. Describe the beginning of Xerxes’ reign. 42, 43. 

24. His preparations against Greece.. 44-46. 

25. The passage of the Hellespont.47. 

26. The magnitude of the army. ........ 48, 49. 

27. The first battle with the Greeks.51. 

28. The disasters by sea.. . 52. 

29. What occurred at Delphi? At Athens? AtSalamis?. 53-55. 

30. Describe the retreat of Xerxes, and his subsequent career. . . . 56,58. 

31. The operations of Mardonius in Greece. .. .... 57. 

32. The accession of Artaxerxes Longimanus.59. 

33. The revolts during his reign.60, 61. 

34. The affairs of the Jews under Artaxerxes. 62-64. 

35. Who were the next three kings?. 65-67. 

36. What was the condition of the kingdom under Darius II ? . „ . 67, 68. 

37. Describe the enterprise of Cyrus the younger. ...... 69-71. 

38. Its results to the Greeks.. 72, 73. 

39. The reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon.74. 

40. The reign of Artaxerxes III.. 75-77. 

41. Who succeeded him ?.78. 

42. What was the character of Darius III ?.79. 

43. Compare the armies of Alexander and Darius.. 80, 82, 83. 

44. Describe the battles of Issus and Arbela.. 81, 84. 

45. The fate of Darius.35. 

46. How long had the Persian Empire continued? 

47. How many kings, commencing with Cyrus? 

48. What was its greatest extent, described by boundaries? 

49. What is meant by a satrapy f 
































. 







•• 


































BOOK III. 


Grecian States and Colonies from their Earliest Period 
to the Accession of Alexander the Great. 

GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF GREECE. 

1. Of the three peninsulas which extend southward into the Mediterra¬ 
nean, the most easterly was first settled, and became the seat of the highest 
civilization which the ancient world could boast. Its southern portion only 
was occupied by Greece, which extended from the 40th parallel southward 
to the 36tli. Continental Greece never equaled in size the state of Ohio. 
Its greatest length, from Mount Olynffpus to Cape Tsen'arum, was 250 
miles; and its greatest breadth, from Actium to Marathon, was but 180. 
Yet this little space was divided into twenty-four separate countries, each 
of which was politically independent of all the rest. 

2. The most peculiar trait of the Grecian peninsula is the great extent 
of its coast as compared with its area. It is almost cut into three distinct 
portions by deep indentations of the sea, northern Greece being separated 
from the central portion by the Ambra'cian and Ma'lian, and central 
Greece from the Peloponnesus by the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs. A 
country thus surrounded and penetrated by water, of necessity became 
maritime. The islands of the JEgean afforded easy stepping-stones from 
Europe to Asia. Opposite, on the south, was one of the most fertile 
portions of Africa; and, on the west, the Italian peninsula was only thirty 
miles distant at the narrowest portion of the channel. 

3. The northern boundary of Greece is the Cambuiiian range, which 
crosses the peninsula from east to west. About midway between the two 
seas, this range is intersected by that of Pir/dus, which runs from north 
to south, like the Apennines of Italy. This lofty chain sends off a branch 
toward the eastern coast, which, running parallel to the Cambunian at a 
distance of sixty miles, incloses the beautiful plain of Thes'saly. Mest of 
Mount Pindus is Epi / rus, a rough and mountainous country inhabited by 
various tribes, some Greek, some barbarian. Its ridges, running north and 

(105) 



106 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


south, were alternated with well-watered valleys. Through the most east¬ 
erly of these flows the Achelo / us, the largest river in Greece. Near its 
source were the sacred oaks of Dodo'na, in the rustling of whose leaves the 
voice of the supreme divinity was believed to be heard. 

4. Central Greece was occupied by eleven states: APtica, Meg / aris, 
Bceo'tia, Malis, iEnia'nia, eastern and western Locris, Phocis, Doris, 
iEU/lia, and Ac / arna / nia. Between iEtolia and Doris, Mount Pindus 
divides into two branches. One of these runs south-easterly into Attica, 
and comprises the noted summits of Parnas'sus, HePicon, Cithae'ron, and 
Hymet'tus; the other turns to the southward, and reaches the sea near the 
entrance of the Corinthian Gulf. 

Attica is a triangular peninsula, having two sides washed by the sea 
and its base united to the land. Protected by its mountain barriers of 
Cithseron and PaPnes, it suffered less from war in early times than other 
parts of the country; and the olive, its chief production, became for all 
ages a symbol of peace. 

5. Southern Greece contained eleven countries: CoPinth, Sicyo'nia, 
Acha'ia, E / lis, Arca'dia, Messe'nia, Laco'nia, APgolis, Epidau'ria, Troe- 
ze'nia, and HermPonis. 

The territory of Corinth occupied the isthmus between the Corinthian 
and Saronic gulfs; and by its two ports, LecliaPum and CeiPchreae, carried 
on an extensive commerce both with the eastern and western seas. Thus 
admirably situated, Corinth, the chief city, was noted for its wealth even 
in the time of Homer. 

Sicyonia was considered the oldest state in Greece, and Argolis next. 
The ruins of TiPyns and Myee'nse, in the latter, existed long before the 
beginning of authentic history. 

Elis was the Holy Land of the PIelle / nes. Every foot of its territory 
was sacred to Zeus, and it was sacrilege to bear arms within its limits. 
Thus it was at peace when all Greece beside was at war; and though its 
wealth surpassed that of all the neighboring states, its capital remained 
unwalled. 

Arcadia, the Switzerland of the Peloponnesus, was the only Grecian 
state without a sea-coast. Its wild, precipitous rocks were clothed in 
gloomy forests, and buried during a great part of the year in fogs and 
snows. Its people were rustic and illiterate; they worshiped Pan, the god 
of shepherds and hunters, but if they returned empty-handed from the 
chase, they expressed their disgust by pricking or scourging his image. 

Messenia occupied the south-western corner of Greece, and encircled a 
gulf to which it gave its name. Laconia embraced the other two prom¬ 
ontories in which the Peloponnesus terminates, together with a larger tract 
to the northward. It consisted mainly of a long valley bounded by two 
high ranges, whence it was sometimes called Hollow La / cedse / mon. Down 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


107 


the center of the vale flowed the Euro'tas, whose sources were in the steep 
recesses of Mount Tay'getus. Sparta, the capital, was the only important 
town. It lay on the Eurotas about twenty miles from the sea, inclosed by 
an amphitheater of mountains which shut out cooling winds and concen¬ 
trated the sun’s rays, so as to produce intense heat in summer. 

0. Although the name of Greece is now strictly limited to the penin¬ 
sula which we have described, it was often more generally applied by the 
ancients to all the homes and colonies of the Hellenic race. The south 
of Italy was long known as Mcig'nci GrcFcia; the eastern shores of the 
JEgean constituted Asiatic Greece, and the cities of Gyrene in Africa, 
Syracuse in Sicily, and Massilia in southern France, were all, to the 
Greeks, equally essential parts of Hellas. The description of the numerous 
and important colonies belongs to a later period. A few of the islands 
more immediately belonging to Greece will alone be mentioned here. 

7. Chief of these was Euboe'a, the great breakwater of the eastern 
coast, which extended a distance of 100 miles in length and 15 in width. 
Nearly as important, though smaller, was Corcy / ra, on the western coast; 
and south of it lay Paxos, Leuca / dia, Itl/aca, Cephallehiia, and Zacyi/thus. 
On the south were the QCnus'sre and the important island of Cythe / ra. On 
the east, among others were HyAlrea, iEgina, and Salamis. Besides these 
littoral, or coast, islands there were, in the northern iEgean, Lemnos, 
Iinbros, Thasos, and Samothra'ce; in the central, the Cycflades; and, in 
the southern, the large island of Crete. 

HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Periods. 

I. Traditional and Fabulous History, from the earliest times to the 
Dorian Migrations, about B. C. 1100. 

II. Authentic History, from the Dorian Migrations to the beginning of 
the Persian wars, B. C. 1100-500. 

III. From the beginning of the Persian wars to the victory of Philip of 
Macedon at Chseronea, B. C. 500-336. 

8. First Period. The name of Greece was unknown to the Greeks, 
who called their country Hellas and themselves Helle'nes. But the Romans, 
having probably made their first acquaintance with the people of that 
peninsula through the GvaThox^ a tribe who inhabited the coast neaiest 
Italy, applied their name to the whole Hellenic race. A more ancient 
na<m£, Pela/gia, was derived from the earliest known inhabitants of the 
country —a widely extended people, who may be traced by the remains of 
their massive architecture in various parts of Italy as well as Greece. The 
Pelasgi were among the first of the Indo-Germanic family to migrate from 
Asia to Europe. 


108 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


9. By conquest or influence, the Hellenes very early acquired the control 
of their neighbors, and spread their name, language, and customs over the 
whole peninsula. They were then regarded as consisting of four tribes, 
the Dorians, Achae'ans, iEo'lians, and Ionians; but the last two, if not all 
four, were probably members of the earlier race. 

10. Though of the same family with the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, 
-and the Brahmins of India, the Greeks had no tradition of a migration 
from Asia, but believed that their ancestors had sprung from the ground. 
They, however, acknowledged themselves indebted, for some important 
elements of their civilization, to immigrants from foreign lands. Cel crops, 
a native of Sais in Egypt, was said to have founded Athens, and to have 
established its religious rites. The citadel bore, from him, the name Ce- 
cro'pia in later times. Better authorities make Cecrops a Pelasgian hero. 
Da'naus , another reputed Egyptian, was believed to have founded Argos, 
having fled to Greece with his fifty daughters. To him the tribe of the 
Da / nai traced their name, which Homer sometimes applied to all the 
Greeks; but the story is evidently a fable. 

Peflops was said to have come from Phrygia, and by means of his great 
wealth to have gained the kingdom of Mycenae. The whole peninsula 
south of the Corinthian Gulf bore his name, being called Peloponnesus. 
A fourth tradition which describes the settlement of the Phoenician Cad' - 
mus at Thebes, in Bceotia, rests upon better evidence. He is said to have 
introduced the use of letters, the art of mining, and the culture of the vine. 
It is certain that the Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician; and 
Cadmus may be regarded, in this elementary sense, as the founder of Eu¬ 
ropean literature. The fortress of Thebes was called, from him, Cadme'a. 

11. The earliest period of Grecian history is called the Heroic Age. In 
later times, poets and sculptors loved to celebrate its leaders as a nobler 
race than themselves, ranking between gods and men ; differing from the 
former by being subject to death, but surpassing the latter both in strength 
of body and greatness of mind. The innumerable exploits of the Heroes 
must be read rather in Mythology than History. The three who had the 
strongest hold in the belief, and influence upon the character of the people, 
were Hercules, the great national hero; The'seus, the hero of Attica; and 
Minos, king of Crete. 

The “Twelve Labors of Hercules ” represent the struggle of Man with 
Nature, both in the destruction of physical evil and the acquisition of 
wealth and power. To understand his reputed history, we must bear in 
mind that, in that early age, lions as well as other savage beasts were still 
numerous in southern Europe; that large tracts were covered by undrained 
marshes and impenetrable forests; and that a wild, aboriginal race of men, 
more dangerous than the beasts, haunted land and sea as robbers and 
pirates. 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


109 


12. Theseus was the civilizer of Attica. He established a constitutional 
government, and instituted the two great festivals, the Panathenaea * and 
Synoikia, in honor of the patron goddess of Athens. The Isthmian Games, 
in honor of Neptune, were also traced to him. 

13. Minos, king of Crete, was regarded by the Greeks as the first great 
law-giver, and thus a principal founder of civilization and social order. 
Alter his death he was believed to be one of the judges of souls in Hades. 
It is worth noticing that the traditional law-givers of many nations have 
borne similar names; and Menu in India, Menes in Egypt, Manis in Lydia, 
Minos in Crete, and Mannus in Germany may all be mythical names for 
Man the Thinker, as distinguished from the savage. 

14. Of the many remarkable enterprises of the Grecian heroes, the last 
and greatest was the Siege of Troy. Zeus, f pitying the earth — so says the 
fable — for the swarming multitudes she was compelled to sustain, resolved 
to send discord among men that they might destroy each other. The occa¬ 
sion of war was found in the wrong inflicted upon Menelaus, king of Sparta, 
by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. All the Greek princes, 

• - . , , B. C. 1194* 

resenting the injury, assembled their forces from the extrem- 

ities of Hellas — from Mount Olympus to the islands of Ithaca, Crete, and 

Rhodes — and crossing the iEgean under the command of Agamem'non, 

spent ten years in the siege of Troy. The story of the tenth p 

year must be read in the Iliad of Homer. X It is impossible 

to separate the historical from the poetical part in his spirited narration. 

Some historians have assigned a definite period to the siege, while others 

have doubted whether Troy, as described by Homer, ever existed. 

15. Though much doubt may be felt as to the character of their heroes 
and events, the poems of Homer give us a true picture of the government 
and manners of the Greeks at this early age. From them we learn that 
each of the petty states had its own king, who was the father, the judge, 
the general, and the priest of his people. He was supposed to be of divine 
descent and appointment. But unlike the blind believers in “divine right” 
in modern times, the Greeks demanded that their kings should prove them¬ 
selves superior to common men in valor, wisdom, and greatness of soul. 
If thus shown to be sons of the gods, they received unquestioning obedi¬ 
ence. 

16. A council of nobles surrounded the king and aided him by their 
advice. The people were often assembled to witness the discussions in the 
council and the administration of justice, as well as to hear the intentions 
of the king; but in this early age they had no voice in the proceedings. 
TheSiobles, like the king, were descended from the gods, and were distin¬ 
guished by their great estates, vast wealth, and numerous slaves. 


* See note, p. 128. | See 23, 25. J See note, p. 110. 



110 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


17. The Greeks of the Heroic Age were distinguished by strong domestic 
attachments, generous hospitality, and a high sense of moral obligation. 
Every stranger was welcomed and supplied with the best cheer before he 
was asked his name or errand. If he came to seek protection, the family 
were under a still stronger obligation to receive him, even if he were an 
enemy; for Zeus had no mercy on him who turned away from the prayer 
of a suppliant. 

18. The manners of the age were simple and homely. The sons of the 
gods cooked their own dinners, and were proud of their skill in so doing. 
Ulysses built his bed-chamber and constructed his raft, beside being an 
excellent plowman and reaper. The high-born ladies, in like manner, 
carded and spun the wool of their husbands’ sheep, and wove it into 
clothing for themselves and their families; while their daughters brought 
water, from the wells, or assisted the slaves to wash garments in the 
river. 

* 

10. Though simple, these people were not uncivilized. They lived in 
fortified towns, adorned by palaces and temples. The palaces of the nobles 
were ornamented with vases of gold, silver, and bronze, and hung with 
rich Tyrian draperies. The warriors were protected by highly wrought 
and richly embellished armor. Agriculture was highly honored. Wheat, 
flax, wine, and oil were the chief productions. 

20. The arts of sculpture and design had already made some progress. 
Poetry was cultivated by minstrels, who wandered from place to place 
singing songs of their own composition, and were sure of an honorable 
welcome in every palace. In this way, doubtless, the blind Homer* 
related the brave deeds done before the walls of Troy, and praised the 
heroes of that epoch in the houses of their descendants. 

21. The religion of the Greeks had some of its first elements in common 
with that of the Hindus. Zeus, the king of gods and men, who reigned 
upon the snowy summit of Olympus, was doubtless the same conception 
with Dyaus', the Bright Ether or Serene Heaven of the Brahmin worship. 
But as the forces of Nature were the objects of adoration, each system bor¬ 
rowed its distinctive features from those of the country in which it was 
developed, and that of the Greeks became incomparably the more delicate 
and refined. The Asiatic origin of their faith was recognized by the Greeks 
themselves, in the fable that Zeus had brought Eurc/pa, daughter of Age'- 
nor (the same with Canaan), in her early youth, across the Hellespont and 


* Homer was an Asiatic Greek who lived probably about B. C. 850. Seven 
cities claimed the honor of his birth, which ancient critics commonly accorded 
to Chios, and modern, to Smyrna. Many legends describe his sorrowful and 
changeful life, shadowed by poverty and blindness; but we can be sure of little 
except that he was the author of some of the earliest and yet greatest poems 
in the world’s literature. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


Ill 


through Thrace. An old tradition said that the people of the ante-Hellenic 
age worshiped all the gods, but gave names to none; a mystical expression 
of the truth that the Greeks, like most other ancient people, had descended 
from the worship of One God to the belief in many. 

Watching with keen eyes the various and apparently conflicting opera¬ 
tions of Nature, the Greeks, unaided by revelation, were led to believe in 
many distinct and sometimes hostile gods; for their science, as imperfect as 
their religion, had not yet arrived at a perception of unity beneath the ap¬ 
parent variety, nor taught them that all forces may be resolved into one. 
Hence we read of conflicts and jealousies among the divine inhabitants of 
Olympus, of which the most ignorant child should be ashamed. In more 
enlightened ages, philosophers severely censured this ascription of unworthy 
passions to the gods, and taught that they should only be conceived as 
serene, beneficent, and superior to human excitements. 

22. Much of the mythology of the Greeks belonged merely to poetry, 
and had no religious character whatever. Many stories of the gods may be 
explained by the familiar appearances of nature. E'os, the dawn, was the 
sister of He / lios, the sun, and Sele'ne, the moon. She dwelt upon the banks 
of Ocean, in a golden-gated palace, whence she issued each morning to an¬ 
nounce to gods and men the approach of her greater brother. She was the 
mother of the Winds and of the Morning Star. I'ris was the messenger of 
the gods. The many-colored rainbow was the road over which she traveled, 
and which vanished, when she no longer needed it, as suddenly as it had 
appeared. 

23. The twelve who constituted the Olympian Council were Zeus, the 
supreme ; Posi'don, the god of the sea; Apollo, the sun-god, and patron of 
music, poetry, and eloquence; A / res, the god of war; Hephaestus, of fire 
and the useful arts; Hertnes, the herald of the gods, and promoter of com¬ 
merce and wealth; Hera, the great goddess of Nature ; Athetia, the favorite 
daughter of Zeus, and patroness of all wisdom, civilization, and art; AF- 
temis, the goddess of the moon or of hunting; Aphrodite, of beauty and 
love; Hestia, of domestic life; and Demeter, the bountiful mother of 
harvests, — six gods and six goddesses. 

24. Beside these, and in some cases equal in rank, were Hades, the god 
of the under-world; Helios and Hecate; Diony'sus, the patron of the vine, 
whose rites bore some resemblance to the drunken So'ma worship of the 
Hindus; the nine Muses, daughters of Zeus and Memory, who presided 
over music, literature, and all the arts; the Oceanids and the Nereids, 
daughters of Posidon; and multitudes more, whom to enumerate would 

require a volume, instead of a few pages. 

25. The religion of the Greeks, properly so called, consisted in reverence 
toward a moral Ruler of the world, ever present and actively concerned in 
human affairs; and in obedience to him by truthfulness in thought, word, 


112 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


and deed. Zeus himself was believed to watch over the sacred perform¬ 
ance of all oaths. Athena was the divine Wisdom, especially as exercised 
in civil affairs. Nein'esis was the divine Justice, as heard either in warn¬ 
ings of conscience within or the reproaches of the world without. The 
Erin'nyes, or as they were flatteringly called, Eumen'ides, * were the 
avengers of crime, older than all the Olympian divinities, and dreaded 
alike by gods and men. The cries of the injured aroused them from their 
dark abode in Tartarus; and to the guilty man they appeared as fierce, 
implacable furies, with flaming eyes and extended talons, who never slept, 
but walked or waited constantly by his side from the moment of his crime 
till its punishment; while to the innocent victim, whom they avenged, they 
wore the form of serene and stately goddesses, with faces beautiful though 
stern. 

26. At a later period, new elements entered into the religious life of the 
Greeks, through their intercourse with other nations, especially with Egypt, 
Asia Minor, and Thrace. The most important of these was the idea of puri¬ 
fication for sins, which was unknown to Homer and Hesiod, and was prob¬ 
ably borrowed from the Lydians. The earliest sacrifices were merely 
expressions of gratitude, or means of obtaining the favor of the gods, and 
had nothing of the character of sin-offerings. In case of crime, it was 
impossible to turn aside the wrath of the Eumenides, either by prayers or 
sacrifices; the guilty person must suffer the extremest consequences of his 
guilt. But under the new system it was believed that the divine anger 
might be averted, and the stain of sin removed. 

Persons guilty of homicide, whether intentional or accidental, were ex¬ 
cluded from the society of man and the worship of the gods until certain 
rites had been performed. In earlier times, a chief or king might officiate 
in the ceremony of purification, but later it was intrusted to priests, or to 
persons supposed to be specially marked for the favor of heaven by holiness 
of life. In case of public calamity, such as plague, famine, or defeat in war, 
whole cities or states underwent the process of purification, with a view to 
appease the supposed wrath of the gods for some hidden or open crime. 

27. Among other foreign observances were the ecstatic rites in honor of 
various divinities. Such were the Bacchanalian dances, celebrated at 
Thebes and Delphi, in honor of Dionysus, in which troops of women spent 
whole nights upon the mountains in a state of the wildest frenzy, shouting, 
leaping, clashing noisy instruments, tearing animals to pieces and devouring 
the raw flesh, and even cutting themselves with knives without feeling the 
wounds. Those who abandoned themselves freely to this excitement were 


* The word Erinnyes meant curses, and hence the angry or persecuting god¬ 
desses. Fearing to call these terrible beings by their real name, the Greeks sub¬ 
stituted the term Eumenides, which meant soothed or benevolent. 




r C. Thyuias 


Aslapn! 


dessus 


JJieopo! 


Jicleus 


Carescua 


.heba 


hclae 


PliinapotPo, 


i-yclmiag 


Jdomene 


A,/ Goi:'lJnxi;iA 

/ N 'n\T; 

> ^.AtaLmtdlv, 
{/>ru '■% °V* 

A[t. ^'CrrrhusV: 


>Nicpi>oliH 

'nrvv:uinms 


Cveuidcs 


Oypscla 


Xeradaea Ca' 


| ^jBarnus 


Xiconiedia. 




G;uids 


"Aigitus 


Astacus 




■<%, A pollnuia 


C. JosidLn 


drocormesus 


Therma -^T l0l jj 


Samothrnce 


Pesbicus X 


Cy/.icn 


.Oricmu .'yAmau 


— Panoimus 

_A«7Tri?liS/—' 


P CtlSJ 


\U. JLllios 


Potidac, 


Ukrdamls 'O' 


flooSsouTiy 


Derrhis 


J^osidium. 


Dorjdaium 


Canastraeum 


Teaedos 


nandrac 


y-yJiodoiia 

HitX^o mams 


laetim. 


Adramyttium 


'elion 4 . 


CotvUiuu: 


'isChene 


. Phcrae 

)CieriXmNA I ' lle S e |' 


Metliym: 

AiUissaPT'y 
C. Sigri.um.Si 


hryphauP 

V T e T 
jPeVgamu; 


‘olyaegos I 


Pliars alus) v ^ 
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Abassus 


^ScopolisyC 

Actium^-i 


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feUi isi I £ nl y. 

Asc 

Oerintlius » 


Gar&brmni 


(idl'd is 


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dFJOej i asW ^ 1 ;'’;; 
:oronea tlThebeg&k,^ 

‘^V'vy iTzfrte ran Attj 


Cepliallenia 


Pliiladelpliia. 


uiuennr 


ilazoniei 


Patrae, 


C. Cancasa 


C. CapKeifcus 


Apamy3\Cibotus 


C. Corycrum 


C cla cna e 


,Andros 


loa^i VAJPheneod 

I S l/^Pfbmneni ; 

IS^lJraea v^HIant^uea' 


Xabdicea 


pAegina 

ethana 


Tenos X 


Alabanda' 


Arycomxs 


Cyttios 


Delos I. 


MyLasa 


Seuplios X 


itessenel 
mjS S| 


V 2 

iSPARTA 

2vAmyclae' 


'caaiae •!» 


Tnliramassus 


Siphnos 


dalymna 


Xphyra 


Mithamej 


orgos 

Astynalaea 


iTebuis s\Js °f^ a 


piclaams 

Limera 


Cnidus 
’eA, Teles 


Melos T. 


•aconian, 


Thera X 


^C.Malea 
Cy tlier a 


PatarP 


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C. Ps acun>. 


C. Cimarus 


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C. Cyarnon A 
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osidium 


C. Samonium. 
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[OSSUS 


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irayytna 




0e BUs S aX^^ %^LS' 
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C- 


I*.**-* 


MAP OF 

ANCIENT GREECE 

and. the 

^EGEAX SEA. 


Scale 

1 

4,526,000 


100 mis. 


A. von Stkinwkhr, Dbl. 









































































































































HISTORY OF GREECE. 


113 


supposed to secure the favor of the god and escape future visitations, while 
those who resisted were punished with madness. 

28. Among the most solemn rites were the Mysteries celebrated at 
Eleusis in honor of Demeter and Persephone. These could only be 
approached by a long and secret course of preparation, and it was a 
crime even to speak of them in the presence of the uninitiated. They 
commanded the deepest reverence of the Greeks, and the participants 
were regarded as more secure than others, both in temporal and spiritual 
perils. When exposed to shipwreck, passengers commonly asked each 
other, “ Have you been initiated ? ” 

The Eleusinian Mysteries, at least in their earlier form, are supposed 
to have been a remnant of the old Pelasgic worship, and thus “ grounded 
on a view of nature less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to 
awaken both philosophical thought and religious feeling” than the Hel¬ 
lenic mythology. 

29. Another custom adopted from abroad was the formation of secret 
societies, whose members bound themselves by ascetic vows, and the obli¬ 
gation to perform, at fixed seasons, certain solemnities. Such were the 
Orphic, and afterward the Pythagorean brotherhoods. Those who entered 
upon the “ Orphic Life,” as it was called, promised to abstain wholly from 
animal food, except the mystic sacrificial feast of raw flesh, and wore white 
linen garments like the Egyptian priests. Though worshipers of Dionysus, 
the Orphic brotherhood abstained from all wild and unseemly demonstra¬ 
tions, and aimed at the most severe simplicity and purity of life and man¬ 
ners. Their reputation for wisdom and holiness was abused by certain 
impostors, who used to visit the houses of the rich and offer to release 
them from the consequences both of their own sins and those of their 
forefathers, by sacrifices and expiatory songs prescribed in the Orphic 
books. 

80. We have anticipated the five or six centuries which followed the 
Heroic Age, for the sake of giving a connected though brief account of 
the religious beliefs and customs of the Greeks, without which their his¬ 
tory could not be understood. It only remains to mention those oracles 
through which, from the earliest times to the latest, and even long after 
the civil existence of Greece was ended, the gods were believed to make 
known their will to man. 

81. The oldest of the oracles was that of Zeus at Dodona, where the 
message of the god was believed to be heard in the rustling of the sacred 
oaks and beeches, and interpreted by his chosen priests or prophetesses, 
At Olympia, in Elis, the will of Zeus was read in the appearance of vic¬ 
tims sacrificed for the purpose. The oracles of Zeus were comparatively 
few. The office of revealing the divine will to man devolved usually upon 
Apollo, who had twenty-two oracles in European and Asiatic Greece. 

A. II.—8 


114 


ANCIENT HISTORY . 


32. Of these the most celebrated was at Delphi, in Phocis, where was a 
temple of Apollo containing his golden statue and an ever-burning fire 
of fir-wood. In the center of the temple was a crevice in the ground, 
whence arose a peculiarly intoxicating vapor. When the oracle was to be* 
consulted, the Pythia, or priestess, took her seat upon the sacred tripod 
over this opening; and when bewildered or inspired by the vapor, which 
was supposed to be the breath of the god, she uttered a response in hexame¬ 
ter verses. It was often so obscure, * that it required more wit to discern 
the meaning of the oracle than to determine the best course of conduct 
without its aid. But so great was the reputation of the Delphic shrine, that 
not only Greeks, but Lydians, Phrygians, and Romans sent solemn embas¬ 
sies to consult it concerning their most important undertakings. 

33. What Europe has been to the rest of the world, Greece was to 
Europe. The same peculiarities of coast and climate which made Europe 
the best adapted to civilization of all the continents, long made Greece its 
most highly civilized portion. But as Europe had her northern barbarians, 
always pressing upon the great mountain barrier of the Pyrenees, Alps, 
and Carpathians, sometimes bursting their limits and overrunning the 
more civilized but weaker nations to the southward, so Greece suffered, 
toward the close of the Heroic Age, from the incursions of the Illyrians 
on her north-western frontier. The time of this movement was fixed by 
Greek historians at sixty years after the fall of Troy, or, in our reckoning, 
B. C. 1124. 

Though the Illyrians did not enter central or southern Greece, their 
southward movement produced a general change among the tribes of the 
peninsula. The Thessalians, who had previously been settled on the 
western coast of Epirus, now crossed the Pindus mountains, and cleared 
for themselves a place in the fertile basin of the Pene'us, hitherto occupied 
by the Boeotians. The Boeotians, thus dispossessed of their ancient seats, 
moved southward, across Mounts O'thrys and Gita, to the vale of the 
Cephissus, whence they drove the Cadmians and Minyse. These tribes 
were scattered through Attica and the Peloponnesus. The Dorians, mov¬ 
ing from the northward, occupied the narrow valley between Gita and 
Parnassus, which thus became Doris; while the Dryo / pians, earlier inhab¬ 
itants of this region, took refuge in Euboea and the islands of the iEgean. 

34. B. C. 1104. Twenty years later, a still more important movement 
took place. The Dorians, cramped by the narrow mountain limits of their 
abode, united with their western neighbors, the iEtolians, to invade the 
Peloponnesus. It is said that they were conducted by Tem'enus, Cres- 
phontes, and Ar / istode / mus, in pursuance of the claims of their great 
ancestor, Hercules, who had been expelled from the southern peninsula a 


* For a specimen, see 108-9,114. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


115 


hundred years oefore. The Dorian migration is therefore often called the 
Return of the Heraclidae. Aristodemus was killed by lightning when 
about to cross the Corinthian Gulf. His brothers were completely vic¬ 
torious over the king of the Achseans, then the most powerful monarch 
in the Peloponnesus, and proceeded to divide the peninsula between 
themselves and their allies. The iEtolians received Elis, on the western 
coast; the rest of the peninsula, except its northern border on the 
Corinthian Gulf, remained to the Dorians, who continued for five cen¬ 
turies to be the dominant race in Greece. The Heraclid princes then 
divided the various crowns by lot. That of Argos fell to Temenus; that 
of Messenia, to Cresphontes; and that of Sparta, to Eurysthenes and 
Procles, the twin sons of Aristodemus. 

35. The conquered Achseans were forced either to emigrate to Asia and 
Italy, or to content themselves with the northern coast of their peninsula, 
from which they expelled its Ionian inhabitants, and gave it their own 
name, Achaia. The Ionians, after resting a few years in Attica, whose 
people were their kinsmen, sought more space in the Cyclades, in Chios 
and Samos, or on the neighboring coasts of Asia Minor. - In the fertile 
region between the Hermus and Mseander, and on the islands, twelve 
Ionian cities* sprang up, and became rich and flourishing states. Though 
independent of each other in government, they were united in the worship 
of Posidon at one common temple, the Panio'nium, which crowned the 
headland of Mycale. 

86. The iEolians had already been driven from their ancient home in 
central Greece, and had found refuge in Lesbos and the north-western 
coast of Asia Minor, between the Hermus and the Hellespont. They, also, 
formed twelve independent cities, but Mytile'ne, on the isle of Lesbos, was 
considered the metropolis. 

37. The Dorians, extending their migrations beyond the conquered 
peninsula, took possession of the south-western coast of Asia Minor, with 
the islands of Cos and Rhodes. Their six cities —sometimes called the 
Doric Hexapolis—were Cni'dus and Halicarnassus, on the mainland; 
IaPyssus, CamPrus, and Lindus, on the isle of Rhodes; and Cos, on the 
island of its own name. Like the Ionians, they worshiped at a common 

sanctuary, the temple of the Triopian Apollo. 

// 

HECAPITTJLATIOIT. 

Greece was first occupied by the Pelasgi, but its ancient name is derived from 
the Hellenes, who early became the predominant race. Many arts were iutio- 
•duced by foreigners, among whom Cecrops and Danaus of Egypt, Pelops of 
Phrygia, and Cadmus of Phoenicia, are most famous in tradition. The Heroic 


* My'us, Prie'ne, Eph'esus, Co'lophon, Leb'edos, Te'os, Er'ythrae, Clazom'ente, 
Phocee'a, Mile'tus, Chi'os, and Sa'mos. 



116 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Age was illustrated by the achievements of sons of the gods, the last and great¬ 
est of their works being a ten years’ siege of Troy. Greece was governed at this 
period by many absolute monarchs: kings and nobles, as well as people, led 
simple and industrious lives. Not only tillage, weaving, and the manufacture of 
metals, but architecture, sculpture, music, and poetry were cultivated to a high 
degree. Greek religion was the most refined and beautiful form of Nature- 
worship. Six gods and six goddesses constituted the Supreme Council of Olym¬ 
pus, and a multitude of inferior divinities peopled the mountains, woods, and 
waters. Conscience was personified in Nemesis and the Erinnyes. Rites of 
atonement for sin, ecstatic celebrations, and ascetic brotherhoods were adopted 
by the Greeks from foreign nations. Of many oracles, the most celebrated was 
that of Apollo, at Delphi. The Heroic Age ended with a general migration of 
the tribes of Greece, which resulted in the settlement of the Dorians in the 
Peloponnesus, and the planting of many Ionian and iEolian colonies on the 
shores of Asia Minor. 

Second Period. B. C. 1100-500. 

38. The Heroic Age had ended with a general migration among the 
tribes of Greece, which for a time interrupted their improvement of 
manners. But Grecian liberty arose out of the ruins of the Heroic Age; 
and instead of absolute monarchies, various forms of free government 
were established in the several states. A state, indeed, was nothing more 
than a city with a small portion of land surrounding it. Except in 
Attica, no city at this time had control over any other town. 

39. All the Greeks —though existing under a multitude of governments, 
and divided by rivalries and jealousies —considered themselves as children 
of one ancestor, Hellen, and gave the common name of barbarians, or 
babblers, to all other nations. The poems of Homer, which were chanted 
at the public festivals and repeated at every hearth-stone, described all the 
Greeks as united against a common foe, and made the feeling of brother¬ 
hood stronger than any occasional animosity. Beside the community of 
blood, language, and national history, the Greeks were stcongly bound 
together by their equal interest in the oracles and the celebration of relig¬ 
ious rites, and their participation in the great national festivals. 

40. The Games. Of these the oldest and most celebrated were the 
Olympic Games. The date of their foundation is lost among the fables of 
the Heroic Age, but it is certain that these athletic contests were the fa¬ 
vorite diversion of heroes in those primitive times. They were revived 
R. c. 884 . and invested with new importance in the time of Iph'itus, 

king of Elis, and Lycui^gus, regent of Sparta. In the next 
century their celebration, once in four years, began to afford the Greek 
measurement of time. 

The first Olympiad was B. C. 776-772. The scene of the festival was 
upon the banks of the Alplieus, in Elis, near the ancient temple of the 
Olympian Zeus. During the month of the celebration wars were sus¬ 
pended throughout Greece. Deputies appeared from all the Hellenic 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


117 


states, who rivaled each other in the costliness of their offerings at the 
temple. The games were in honor of Zeus and Hercules. They were 
open to all Greeks, without distinction of wealth or birth; but barbarians, 
even of royal blood, were strictly excluded. They included running, 
jumping, wrestling, boxing, the throwing of quoits and javelins, and races 
of horses and chariots. The only reward of the victor was a crown of wild 
olive; but this was esteemed by every Greek as the highest honor he could 
attain. Its happy wearer was welcomed home with processions and songs 
of triumph; he entered the town through a breach made in the walls, to 
signify that a city possessed of such sons needed no other defense; he was 
thenceforth exempt from all taxes, as one who had conferred the highest 
obligation upon the state; he occupied the chief place in all public specta¬ 
cles; if an Athenian, he ate at the table of the magistrates; if a Spartan, 
he had the privilege in battle of fighting near the person of the king. 

41. Three other periodical festivals, which were at first confined to the 
states where they occurred, were at length thrown open to the whole Hel¬ 
lenic race. The Pythian. Games, in honor of Apollo, were celebrated on 
the Cirrhae'an plain, in Pliocis, the third year of every Olympiad. They 
included competition in music and poetry as well as in athletic sports, and 
were, next to the Olympic, the most celebrated festival in Greece. The 
Nehnean and Isthmian Games were celebrated once in two years; the 
former in the valley of Neinea, in Argolis, in honor of Zeus, and the latter 
on the Isthmus of Corinth, in honor of the sea-god, Posidon. 

Thus every year was marked by at least one great national festival, and 
■every second year by two, reminding the throngs which attended them of 
their common origin, and the distinction between themselves and barbari¬ 
ans. Beside keeping alive that athletic training which increased the 
strength of Grecian youth, these yearly assemblies served also the purposes 
of the modern European fairs, of the lecture hall, and, to a certain extent, 
of the printing-press; for booths were erected all around the sacred grove, 
in which the industries of all the Hellenic states and colonies found a 
ready market; while, in the intervals of athletic display, poets chanted to 
the eager throng their hymns and ballads; historians related the deeds of 
foreign and native heroes; and philosophers unfolded to all who were wise 
enough to listen, their theories of mind and matter, and the relation of 
gods to men. 

42. Another bond of union among the Greeks was found in the Amphic'- 
tyones, or voluntary associations of neighboring or kindred tribes, usually 
for the protection of some common temple or sanctuary. Such a one had 
its center at Delos, the religious metropolis of the Cyclades; and the three 
tribes of Dorians, Ionians, and iEolians in western Asia Minor had each its 
federal union on the same principle. . But the most celebrated and lasting 
was the Amphictyonic league of twelve tribes, which had its semi-annual 


118 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


meetings, in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Anthela, near 
Thermopylae. 

43. After the Dorian Conquest, Argos was for several centuries the 
leading power in Greece. In the earliest part of its history, the govern¬ 
ment was a monarchy, like those of the Heroic Age, the kings claiming 
descent from Hercules. But the spirit of freedom having been awakened 
in the people, they gradually took away power from their kings, and estab¬ 
lished a republic, though retaining the name of monarchy. About 780 
B. C., one PhPdon came to the throne, who, having more talent than his 
predecessors, won back all the powers which they had lost, and made him¬ 
self absolute with the now first-used name of “ tyrant.” He extended the 
dominion of Argos over the whole Peloponnese, and sent forth colonies 
which rendered the Argive name famous in Crete, Rhodes, Cos, Cnidus, and 
Halicarnassus. His intercourse with Asia led to the first use of coined 
money in Greece, and of a system of weights and measures which is 
supposed to be the same with the Babylonian. After the death of Phidon, 
Argive power rapidly declined. The subject and allied cities threw off the 
oppressive rule which he had exercised, and a new state was now gaining 
power in the Peloponnese which was destined to eclipse all the glories of 
Argos. 

Sparta. 

44. When the Dorians invaded Peloponnesus, tne former inhabitants 
still retained their foothold in the country, and lor three hundred years 
their fortress of Amy'clse stood at only two miles distance from the Doric 
capital of Lacedaemon, defying assault. The Lacedaemonians consisted 
of three classes: 1. The Doric conquerors; 2. The subject Achaeans of the 
country towns; and, 3. The enslaved Helots, who were bought and sold 
with the soil. 

45. The government of Sparta was a double monarchy, its two kings 
being descended respectively from Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons 
of Aristodemus. They possessed little power in peace, but as generals, in 
these early times, they were absolute in war. They were held in great 
honor as the descendants of Hercules, and thus as connecting links be¬ 
tween their people and the gods. The Spartan Senate consisted of thirtv 

* 

members, each of whom had passed the age of sixty, and had been a 
blameless servant of the state. The popular assembly was of little im¬ 
portance, though, as a matter of form, questions of peace or war and the 
election of certain officers were referred to it. At a later time, however, 
this assembly by a free vote chose five Ephors, who had absolute power 
even over the kings and senate, as well as over the people. 

46. However subservient they might be to kings or senate, the people 
held themselves proudly above the industrious but dependent inhabitants 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


119 


of the towns. There was more difference of rank between Spartan and 
Achaean than between the meanest Spartan and his king. The Helots 
were marked for contempt by a garment of sheep-skin and a cap of dog¬ 
skin ; and every year stripes were indicted upon them for no fault, but that 
they might never forget that they were slaves. 

47. About 850 B. C., arose Lycurgus, one of the most celebrated of 
ancient law-givers. He was of the royal family of Sparta; and upon the 
death of his brother, King Polydec'tes, he exercised supreme command in 
the name of his infant nephew, Charila / us. His administration was the 
most wise and just that the Spartans had known; but his enemies raised 
a report that he was seeking the crown for himself, and he resolved to 
withdraw from the country until his nephew should be of age. 

The Spartans missed the firm and wise government of their regent. 
The young king came to the throne, but disorders were not checked, and 
a party of the better sort sent a message to Lycurgus urging his return. 
He first consulted the oracle at Delphi, and was hailed with the title, 
“ Beloved of the gods, and rather a god than a man.” To his prayer that 
he might be enabled to enact good laws, the priestess replied that Apollo 
had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he was about to 
•establish should be the best in the world. Those who might envy the 
power and deny the authority of Lycurgus as a man, could not refuse 
obedience to his laws when thus enforced by the god. He effected a great 
revolution in Sparta, with the consent and cooperation of the king him¬ 
self. 

48. The laws of Lycurgus lessened the powers of the kings and increased 
those of the people, but their chief end was to secure the continuance of the 
state by making every Spartan a soldier. Modern nations believe that gov¬ 
ernments exist for the people; in Sparta, on the contrary, each person ex¬ 
isted only for the state. His right to exist was decided upon the threshold 
of life by a council of old men, before whom each newly-born infant was 
presented. If it seemed to promise a vigorous and active life, it was accepted 
as a child of the state, and assigned a nine-thousandth part of the Spartan 
lands; but if weakly and deformed, it was cast into a ravine to perish. 

At seven years of age every boy so allowed to live was taken from his 
home and subjected to a course of public training. The discipline of his 
body was considered of more importance than the improvement of his 
mind, fie endured heat and cold, hunger and fatigue; and beside the 
gymnastic exercises, he was subjected to all the hardships of military 
service. His garment was the same summer and winter; the food given 
him was too little to sustain life, but he was expected to make up the 
deficiency by hunting or stealing. If caught in the latter act, he was 
severely punished ; but it was not for the dishonesty, but for the awkward¬ 
ness of allowing himself to be detected. It must be remembered, however, 


120 


A NCI ENT II 1ST QR Y. 


that where there was no property there could be no theft in any moral 
sense. Every thing in Sparta was ultimately tne property ot the state, 
and every interest was subordinate to the training of citizens to dexterity 
in war. 

49. Another means of training the Spartan youth to fortitude, was a 
cruel scourging for no offense at the shrine of Artemis, which they endured 
without a sound, although the altar was sprinkled with their blood, and 
some even died under the lash. Those who were educated by such in¬ 
human severities, were not likely to become either just or merciful toward 
others. The wretched Helots afforded a never-failing exercise for their 
skill in war. Under the institution called Crypti'a, they were frequently 
attacked and murdered by the select bands of young Spartans, who ranged 
the country by night in quest of military practice. When the Helots 
became more numerous than their masters, so as to be regarded with 
apprehension, these massacres became more frequent and general. 

50. Spartan discipline did not end with youth. At thirty a man was 

permitted to marry, but he still lived at the barracks and ate at the 

common table. Public affairs were discussed at these tables with a 

freedom which partly repaid the suppression of speech in the assembly. 

The youth were permitted to attend in silence, and thus received their 

political education. The remaining hours of the day were divided by the 

men between gymnastic exercises and the instruction of youth. Not until 

his sixtieth vear was a man released from this martial life. 

«/ 

51. Spartan girls were subjected to nearly as rigorous a training as their 
brothers. Their exercises consisted of running, wrestling, and boxing, and 
their characters became as warlike as those of men. Like other citizens, 
the Spartan women considered themselves and all that were most dear to 
them as the absolute property of the state. 

52. That the minds of the Spartans might never be diverted from mili¬ 
tary pursuits, Lycurgus permitted no citizen to engage in agriculture, 
trade, or manufactures, all occupations which could be pursued for gain 
being left in the hands of the subject Achreans. To shut out foreign 
luxuries, he adopted a still more stringent measure. The possession of 
gold or silver was forbidden, and money was made of iron rendered worth¬ 
less by being heated and plunged into vinegar. This bore so low a nom¬ 
inal value in proportion to its weight, that the amount of one hundred 
dollars was a load for a pair of oxen. So cumbrous a medium of exchange 
was despised by other nations; the ports of Sparta were unvisited by 
trading ships, and her villages by traveling minstrels or merchants; and 
as Spartans were forbidden to journey in other lands without the leave of 
their magistrates, while, with very rare exceptions, no foreigner was per¬ 
mitted to reside in their capital, the selfish exclusiveness of the nation 
seemed complete. 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


121 


Love of country was limited to Laconia, and never included Hellas. 
Except when Sparta was threatened, they never united with the other 
Grecian states; and, in time of peace, bore more hatred to Athens than 
to Persia. The free, intellectual life of the-Athenians was the object of 
their especial disgust; and the philosophy and eloquence which made the 
glory of Athens, were the scorn of the Spartans, who considered it a crime 
to use three words where two could be made to suffice. 

58. Unlike other cities of Greece, Sparta was never protected by walls. 
The high mountains on the north and west were a safeguard against 
assaults by land, while the rock-bound coasts to the eastward prevented 
invasion by sea. The whole city was a camp, where each man knew his 
hourly duty, and endured more privation in time of peace than in war. 
The laws of Lycurgus were successful in making a race of soldiers, narrow¬ 
minded, prejudiced, and avaricious; destitute of those finer and sweeter 
traits which belonged to the higher order of Grecian character, but brave, 
hardy, self-sacrificing, and invincible. 

54. Having completed his legislative work, Lycurgus secured its per¬ 
petuity by a sacrifice of himself. He declared that it was necessary to 
consult the oracle, and exacted an oath from kings, senators, and people 
that they would obey his laws until his return. He then went to Delphi, 
made offerings to Apollo, and received an assurance that Sparta should be 
the most glorious city in the world so long as she adhered to his laws. 
Having transmitted this message to his countrymen, Lycurgus resolved 
never to return. He is said to have starved himself to death. The time 
and place of his death are unknown. .Cirrha, Elis, and the island of Crete, 
claimed his tomb, while other accounts declare that his remains were 
brought to Sparta, and that a stroke of lightning gave the seal of divinity 
to his last resting-place. 

55. Sparta kept her oath five hundred years, and during a great portion 
of that time maintained the first rank among Grecian states. Amyclae was 
taken a few years after the departure of Lycurgus. From a mere garrison 
in a hostile country, Sparta now became mistress of Laconia, and began 
to make war with her northern neighbors, Argos and Arcadia. The chief 
object of her enmity was Messenia, another Doric kingdom to the west¬ 
ward, separated from Sparta by the ridge of Mount Taygetus. 

50. First Messenian War. B. C. 743-724. The Messenians had adopted 
a more literal policy toward their Achsean subjects than prevailed at Sparta, 
and the jealousy of the two nations had led to frequent mutual insults, 
when, at length, a slight occasion plunged them into open war. A distin¬ 
guished Messenian, who had been crowned at the Olympic Games, pastured 
his cattle by agreement upon the lands of a certain Spartan. But the 
Spartan, seizing the opportunity for a fraud, sold both the cattle and the 
Messenian herdsmen who tended them, and crowned his iniquity by mur- 


122 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


B. C. 738. 


B. C. 730. 


B.C. 724. 


dering the son of the owner, who came to demand the price. The unhappy 
father went to Sparta to demand justice from the kings, but his grief was 
disregarded and his claims unpaid. He then took' revenge into his own 
hands, and murdered every Lacedaemonian who came in his way. The 
Spartans called upon the Messenians to surrender their countryman, but 
they refused to give him up, and war broke out. 

57. For the first four years the Messenians made effectual resistance, 
and their invaders gained nothing; but in the fifth a partial 
reverse compelled them to shut themselves up in the strong 

fortress of Itho / me. The Spartans took a solemn oath never to return to 
their families until they had subdued Messenia. In the thirteenth year, 
Theopompus, king of Sparta, marched against Itliome, and a great battle 
was fought, in which the king of Messenia was slain. Aris- 
todemus was chosen in his place, and the war went on. In 
the eighteenth year, Arcadia and Sicyon sent forces to aid the Messenians, 
while Corinth joined the Spartans. A third great battle was fought, in 
which the invaders were defeated and driven in disgrace to their own 
country. But at this time the oracles began to favor the Spartans, while 
dreams and visions dismayed the soul of Aristodemus. He 
slew himself, and, with his life, success departed from the 
Messenians. Ithome was abandoned, the Spartans razed it to the ground, 
and the Messenians were reduced to slavery. 

58. For thirty-nine years they endured a galling weight of oppression, 
but at the end of that time a hero of the royal line arose for their deliv¬ 
erance. The exploits of Aristom'enes form the chief history of the 
B c 685-668 Second Messenian War, though almost the entire Pelopon¬ 
nesus was engaged. The Corinthians, as before, fought for 

Sparta, while the Argives, Arcadians, Sicyonians, and Pisatans took part 
with the Messenians. After losing one battle, the Spartans sent to Delphi 
for advice, and received the unwelcome direction to apply to Athens for a 
leader. The Athenians, too, feared, to disobey the oracle; but desiring to 
render no real assistance to their rivals, they sent a lame school-master, 
named Tyrtae'us, to be their general. They found, as usual, that the 
Pythia was not to be outwitted. Tyrtseus reanimated the rude vigor of 
the Spartans by his martial songs, and it is to these that their final success 
is mainly attributed. 

59. The Spartans were slow in regaining their former ascendency. In 

the battle of StenycleTus they were defeated with great loss, and pursued 
by Aristomenes to the very summit of the mountains. In the third year 
B c 683 the Messenians suffered a signal defeat through the treachery 

of an ally, and Aristomenes retired to the fortress of Ira. 
The Spartans encamped around the foot of the hill, and for fourteen years 
the war was actively prosecuted, the Messenian hero often issuing from his 


HISTORY OF GREECE . 


12a 


B. C. 668. 


castle, and ravaging with fire and sword the lands held by the enemy. 
Three times he offered to Zeus Ithomates the sacrifice called Hecatom- 
phonia, in token that he had slain a hundred enemies with his own 
hand. 

(JO. But neither the valor nor the good fortune of the leader availed to 
save his country. Ira was taken by surprise. Aristomenes ended his days 
at Rhodes. His sons led a large number of the exiled Mes- 
senians into Italy, and settled near Rliegium. A few who 
remained were admitted to the condition of the subject Achaeans; but, as 
before, the mass of the people were reduced to serfdom, and remained in 
that condition three hundred years. The conquest of Messenia was followed 
by a war against Arcadia which continued nearly a hundred years. The 
sole fruit to Sparta was the capture of the little city of Tegea. 

61. F rom the earliest times Sparta had been the rival of Argos, which 
then ruled the whole eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. Soon after Ly- 
curgus, the boundaries of Laconia were extended eastward to the sea, and 
northward beyond the city of ThyFea. About B. C. 547, the Argives went 
to war to recover this portion of their former territory. They were defeated 
and their power forever humbled.. 

62. Sparta was for a time the most powerful .state in Greece. Her own 
territories covered the south of the Peloponnesus, and the 
neighboring states were so far subdued that they made no 
attempt to resist her authority. That authority had hitherto been exerted 
within the narrow limits of the Peloponnese, but about this time an em¬ 
bassy from Croesus, king of Lydia, acknowledged her leadership in Greece, 
and invited her to join him in resisting the Persians. At this point began 
the foreign policy of Sparta. Her influence among the Grecian states was 
always in favor of either oligarchy or despotism — against such a govern¬ 
ment by the people as existed in Athens; and the aristocratic party in 
every city looked to Sparta as its natural champion and protector. 


B. C. 547. 


BECAPITULATION. 

After the Dorian migrations, republics replaced most of the monarchies in 
Greece. Though divided into many rival states, the Hellenes were one race in 
origin, language, religion, and customs. The Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and 
Isthmian Games promoted civilization by the free interchange of ideas. The 
Amphictyonic Council, at Delphi and Thermopylae, united twelve Hellenic tribes 
for mutuaPdefense. Pliidon, king of Argos, founded many colonies, and first 
introduced weights, measures, and the coinage of money from the East. 

The Spartan government consisted of a double line of Heraclid kings, a 
senate, and, in later times, five ephors. Lycurgus, as regent, reformed the laws 
by subjecting every person to military rule, forbidding lucrative employments, 
and discouraging all intercourse with foreign nations. By two long wars the 
Spartans enslaved their neighbors, the Messenians; and their power was always 
opposed to free institutions in the states of Greece, among which Lacedaemon 
held for some centuries the foremost rank. 


ANCIENT HIST OR Y. 


B. C. 1050-752. 


Athens. 

63. The history of Athens presents an infinitely greater variety of char¬ 
acter and incident than that of Sparta. Unsurpassed by the Spartans in 
patriotism or valor, the Athenians differed from them in their love for rare 
sculpture, magnificent architecture, and the refined diversions of music, 
poetry, and the drama. The consequence is, that while the Spartans won 
the world’s admiration only by their sacrifice of personal interests to those 
of the state, the Athenians were at once the models and the leaders of aB 
civilized nations in the arts which give grace and loveliness to life. An 
Athenian visiting Sparta, and seeing the appointments of the public tables, 
said that he no longer wondered at Spartan bravery in battle, lor life so 
nourished could not be worth preserving. 

64. In the Heroic Age Athens was governed by kings. Theseus sub¬ 
dued the country towns of Attica, and made the city the capital of a 
centralized monarchy. Codrus, the last of the kings, fell in resisting the 
Dorian invaders, who had conquered the Peloponnesus and designed to 
subjugate Attica. The invasion was repelled, but the kingdom was not 

reestablished. The eupatridse, or nobles, secured the election 
of an archon for life, who was in a certain degree responsible 
to them for his actions. Though of the royal race of Codrus, he had neither 
the name nor the dignity of a king. This succession of archons continued 
about 300 years. 

65. An important change was then made by limiting the term of office 
to ten years. At the expiration of his service, the archon could be tried 
and punished if his conduct was proved to have been unjust. At first the 
election was made, as before, from the descendants of Codrus; but one of 
these being deposed for his cruelty, the office was thrown open to all 
nobles. A third change appointed, instead of a single magistrate, a board 

B c. 684 °* n * ne > W ^° were chosen yearly from among the eupatrids. 

Nobles alone had the right to vote, and for sixty years the 
government of Athens was a pure aristocracy. 

66. But the people of Athens, afterward to fill so important a part in 
history, now made themselves heard in a demand for written laws , which 
should stand between them and the arbitrary will of their rulers. The 
B.C.621. nobles acceded to the demand, but avenged their injured 

dignity by appointing Draco to prepare the code. This first 
Athenian law-giver made a collection of statutes so severe that they were 
said to be indeed the work of a dragon, and to be written not with ink, 
but with blood. The smallest theft, not less than murder and sacrilege, 
was punished by death, and the life of every citizen was left absolutely 
at the mercy of the ruling order. 

67. Great dissatisfaction arose among the Athenians in consequence of 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


125 


B. C. 020. 


B. C. 590. 


these laws, and Cylon, an aspiring young noble, aided by his father-in-law, 
the tyrant of Megara, took advantage of the disturbance to 
seize the Acropolis, with a view to making himself tyrant 
of Athens. The archons quelled this rash rebellion, but in so doing they 
themselves incurred the guilt of sacrilege, for the criminals were put to 
death at the very altar of the Eumenides. * While the people were thrown 
into a tumult of superstitious fear, a plague broke out, which was believed 
to be a judgment of the gods. The Delphic oracle being invoked, com¬ 
manded that Athens should be purified by priestly rites. Epimen'ides, a 
sage and seer, who was reputed to have great insight into the 
healing powers of Nature, was brought from Crete, and by 
his sacrifices and intercessions the plague was believed to be arrested. The 
archons, however, saw a cause of their recent danger, deeper than the 
transient outbreak, and they appointed Solon, the wisest of their number, 
to frame a new code of laws. 

08. The condition of Attica demanded immediate remedies. The three 
factions, consisting of the wealthy nobles of the Athenian Plain , the mer¬ 
chants of the Shore, and the poor peasantry of the Attic Mountains, were 
opposed to each other by the most bitter enmities. Some of the latter in 
their need had been compelled to borrow money, at exorbitant interest, 
from the nobles, and being unable to pay, had become the slaves of their 
creditors. 

09. Solon, though a noble, had been forced by the ruin of his fortune to 
engage in commerce, choosing this means of support, however, with a view 
to the improvement of his mind by observation of foreign lands. While 
he was exchanging his Attic oil and honey for Egyptian millet, at Nau- 
cratis, he had not failed to study the laws of the Pharaohs, or to observe 
their effects upon the interests and character of the people. B c 594> 

His wisdom and integrity commanded the confidence of all 
classes of his fellow-citizens, and he was made sole archon for life, with 
unlimited power to alter the existing state of things. 

70. His first object was to improve the condition of the poor debtors, 
not merely by alleviating present distress, but by removing its causes. To 
this end he enacted a bankrupt law, canceling all contracts in which the 
land or person of a debtor had been given as security; and to avoid such 
evils in the future, he abolished slavery for debt. The rate of interest was 
abated, and the value of the currency lowered, so that the debtor gained 
about one-fourth by paying in a depreciated medium. Above all, provision 
was made against a recurrence of the same distress, by requiring every 
father to teach his son some mechanical art. If this was neglected, the 
son was freed from all responsibility for supporting his father in old age 


* See l 25. 




126 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Foreigners were not allowed to settle in the country, unless skilled in some 
form of industry which they engaged to carry on. 

71. The chief design of the new constitution was to set up a free and 
moderate government, instead of the oppressive tyranny of the nobles. 
Solon divided the people into four classes, according to their possessions. 
The poorest were permitted to vote, but not to hold office. I lie upper 
three classes alone were subject to direct taxation, which fell with greatest 
weight upon the wealthiest. The code of Draco was repealed. Instead of 
severe punishments, Solon introduced the fear of shame and the hope of 
honor as preventives of crime. Among the rewards for faithful citizenship 
were crowns presented by senate or people; public banquets in the hall of 
state; statues in the Agora or the streets; places of honor in the theater or 
popular assembly. As persons distinguished by these various honors were 
constantly seen by the youth of Athens, their ambition was kindled to 
deserve similar rewards. 

72. A new legislative Council of Four Hundred was formed, consisting 
of one hundred members from each tribe, to be chosen yearly by a free 
vote in the popular assembly. The source of power was in the assembly 
of all the people, which elected the archons and councilors, accepted or 
rejected the laws proposed by the latter, and judged the former at the end 
of their term of office. Popular courts of law were also instituted, to which 
a criminal might appeal when condemned by another tribunal. The Council 
of the Areopagus continued to be the highest court in the state, and was es¬ 
pecially charged with the maintenance of religion and morals. Originally 
it included all the nobles, but Solon restricted it to those who had worthily 
discharged the duties of the archonship. 

73. There were no professional lawyers in Athens, for the knowledge 
and enforcement of the laws were held to be the duty of every citizen. In 
ease of popular sedition, every man was to be dishonored and disfranchised 
who took no part on either side. This rule was designed to stimulate 
public spirit, and to supply the want of a regular police or military force 
by the active interference of the citizens. Already a large body of wealthy 
and respectable men kept themselves aloof from public affairs, which fell 
thus into the hands of unscrupulous and ambitious plotters. 

74. Solon is reckoned the greatest of the Seven Wise Men* of Greece, 
and some of his sayings have been the maxims of the best legislators of all 
ages. When asked how injustice could be banished from a republic, he 
replied, “By making all men feel the injustice done to each.” His new 
constitution failed, however, to satisfy all classes of his fellow-citizens. 
The nobles blamed him for having gone too far; the common people, for 

*Of the Seven Wise Men, six were rulers and statesmen. The seven w r ere 
Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Cleobulus of Lindus, Bias of Prie'ne, 
Pittacus of Mytilene, Thales of Miletus, and Cliilo of Sparta. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


127 


B. C. 570. 


B. C. 560. 


having withheld too much. He himself admitted that his laws were not 
the best possible, but the best that the people would receive. 

He obtained, however, from the government and people, an 
oath to maintain the constitution ten years; and then, to rid himself of 
perpetual questions and complaints, he departed into foreign lands. 

75. On returning to Athens, Solon found that the flames of faction had 
broken out with more fury than ever. The Plain had for 
its leader Lycurgus; the Shore, Megacles; and the Mountain, 

Pisis'tratus, a kinsman of Solon. The latter was idolized by the people 
for his personal beauty, his military fame, his persuasive eloquence, and 
his unbounded generosity. But beneath many real virtues he concealed 
an insatiable ambition, which could not rest short of supremacy in the 
state. When his plans were ready for execution, he appeared one day 
in the market-place bleeding with self-inflicted wounds, which he assured 
the people he had received in defense of their rights, from the hands of 
his and their enemies, the factious nobles. The people, in their grief and 
indignation, voted him a guard of fifty clubmen. Solon saw the danger that 
lurked in this measure, but his earnest remonstrances were unheeded. 

Pisistratus did not limit himself to the fifty men allotted him, but raised 
a much larger force, with which he seized the Acropolis and made himself 
master of the city. Notwithstanding his resistance to the usurpation, 
Solon was treated with great deference by his cousin, who constantly 
asked his counsel in the administration of affairs. But the aged law¬ 
giver did not long survive the freedom of Athens. After his death his 
ashes were scattered, as he had directed, around the island of Salamis, 
which in his youth he had won for the Athenians. 

70. The First Tyranny of Pisistratus was not of long duration. 
For six years he had maintained the laws of Solon, when 
the two factions of the Plain and the Shore combined against 
him, and he was driven from the city. An incident which occurred during 
his first reign had an important bearing on the later history of Greece. A 
noble named MiltFades, of the highest birth in Athens, was sitting one day 
before his door, when he saw strangers passing whom he knew to be for¬ 
eigners by their spears and peculiar garments. With true Athenian hos¬ 
pitality, he invited them to enjoy the comforts of his house, and was 
rewarded by a singular disclosure. 

They were natives of the Thracian Chersonesus — that narrow tongue of 
land which lies along the north shore of the Hellespont — and had been 
to consult the oracle at Delphi concerning the war in which their country¬ 
men were now engaged. The priestess had directed them to ask the first 
man who should offer them hospitality after leaving the temple, to found 
a colony in the Chersonesus. They had passed through Phocis and Boeotia 
without receiving an invitation, and they now hailed their host as the 


B. C. 560-554. 


128 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


B C. 548, 547. 


B. C. 537. 


person described by the oracle, and entreated him to come to their assist¬ 
ance. Miltiades and his family were regarded with especial enmity by 
Pisistratus, and were discontented under his rule. He accepted the invi¬ 
tation of his guests, collected a party of the similarly affected among his 
fellow-citizens, and with them planted an independent principality on the 
Hellespont. It was his nephew who commanded at Marathon. * 

77. Second Tyranny. Within six years from the expulsion of Pisis¬ 
tratus, his rivals quarreled between themselves, and Mega- 
cles, the leader of the Shore, invited him to return and 

resume the sovereignty. But Athens could not yet remain at peace. In 
a short time Pisistratus offended Megacles, who had brought him back, 
and who again united with Lycurgus to expel him. This time the tyrant 
was ten years in exile, but he was constantly engaged in raising men and 
money in the different states of Greece. He landed at length 
with a powerful army at Marathon, and, joined by many 
friends, advanced toward the city. He had pitched his tent near the 
temple of Athena before his enemies had mustered any force to oppose 
him, and their hastily gathered troops were then signally defeated. The 
people willingly changed masters, and Pisistratus became for the third 
time supreme ruler of Athens. 

78. Third Tyranny. He now established his government upon firmer 
B c 537-597 foundations, and the people forgot its arbitrary character in 

the liberality and justice which marked his administration. 
He maintained all the laws of Solon, and in his own person set the ex¬ 
ample of strict and constant obedience. He took care to fill the highest 
offices with his own kinsmen, but the wealth which he accumulated was 
at the service of all who needed assistance. His library, the earliest in 
Greece, and his beautiful gardens on the Ilissus, were thrown freely open 
to the public. He first caused the poems of Homer to be collected and 
arranged, that they might be chanted by the rhapsodists at the greater 
Panathensehi, f or twelve days’ festival in honor of Athena. He ministered 
at once to the taste and the necessities of the people, by employing many 
poor men in the construction of magnificent public buildings with which 
he adorned the city. The opinion of Solon was justified, that he was the 
best of tyrants, and possessed no vice save that of ambition. 


-See Book II, §§ 37, 39; Book III, gg 99-102. 

t The Panathenaic festival-was celebrated every year from the time of The¬ 
seus, in honor of Athena Polias, the guardian of the city. It included torch 
races, musical and gymnastic contests, horse, foot, and chariot races, and costly 
sacrifices. The greater Panatbensea took place in the third year of every Olym¬ 
piad. It was distinguished by a sacred procession, bearing to her temple in 
the Erechtheum a crocus-colored garment embroidered with representations of 
the victories of the goddess. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


129 


79. After a reign of seventeen years in all, Pisistratus died at an ad¬ 
vanced age, and his eldest son, Hippias, succeeded to his 

power, his brother Hipparchus being so closely associated 
with him that they were frequently mentioned as the Two Tyrants. Their 
united government was carried on in the same mild and liberal spirit that 
had distinguished their father, and their reign was considered a sort of 
Golden Age in Athens. They reduced the tax on produce from a tenth to 
a twentieth, and yet, by a prudent management of resources, continued to 
add embellishments to the city. 

Fourteen years had thus passed in peace and prosperity, when Hippar¬ 
chus gave serious offense to a citizen named Harmo / dius, 

O. 0/7-514. 

who thereupon united with his friend AristogFton in a plot 
to murder the two tyrants. Hipparchus was slain. Hippias saved himself 
by promptness and presence of mind; but from that day his character was 
changed. His most intimate friends had been accused by the conspirators 
as concerned in the plot, and executed. Though the charge was false and 
made only for revenge, the suspicions of Hippias never again slept. The 
property and lives of the citizens were alike sacrificed to his cruel and 
miserly passions. 

80. The faction of the Alcmseon'ids, who had been exiled under their 
leader, Megacles, now gained strength for an active demonstration. They 
bribed the Delphic priestess to reiterate in the ears of the Spartans that 
“ Athens must be delivered.” These brave but superstitious people had a 
friendship of long standing with the Pisistrat'idae, but they dared not dis¬ 
obey the oracle. An army was sent to invade Attica: it was defeated and 
its leader slain. A second attempt was more successful: the Thessalian 
cavalry which had aided the tyrant was now defeated, and Hippias shut 
himself up in the citadel. His children fell into the hands B Q 51Q 
of the Spartans, who released them only on condition that he 

and all his kin should withdraw from Attica within five days. A perpetual 
decree of banishment was passed against the family, and a monument re¬ 
cording their offenses was set up in the Acropolis. 

81. Clisthenes, the head of the Alcmseonidae, now rose into power. 
Though among the highest nobles, he attached himself to the popular 
party, and his measures gave still greater power to the people than the 
laws of Solon had done. Instead of the four tribes, he ordained ten, and 
subdivided'each into denies, or districts, each of which had its own mag¬ 
istrate and popular assembly. The Senate, or Great Council, was increased 
from 400 to 500 members, fifty from each tribe, and all the free inhabitants 
of Attica were admitted to the privileges of citizens. 

To guard against the assumption of power by one man, as in the case 
of Pisistratus, Clisthenes introduced the singular custom of ostracism , by 
which any citizen could be banished without accusation, trial, or defense. 

A. II.—9. 


130 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


If the Senate and Assembly decided that this extreme measure was required 
for the safety of the state, each citizen wrote upon a tile or oyster-shell the 
name of the person whom he wished to banish. If the name of any one 
person was found upon six thousand ballots, he was required to withdraw 
from the city within ten days. The term of his exile was at first ten years 
but it was afterward reduced to five. 

82. Isag / oras, leader of the nobles, disgusted by the rise of his rival, 
called again upon the Spartans to interfere in Athenian affairs. CleonP- 
enes, king of Sparta, advanced upon Athens, and demanded the expulsion 
of Clisthenes and all his family, as accursed for the sacrilege committed, 
nearly a hundred years before, in the murder of Cylon. Clisthenes retired, 
and Cleomenes proceeded with his friend Isagoras to expel seven hundred 
families, dissolve the Senate, and revolutionize the city. But the people 
rose against this usurpation, besieged Isagoras and his Spartans in the 
citadel, and only accepted their surrender on condition of their withdraw¬ 
ing from Attica. Clisthenes was recalled and his institutions restored. 

83. Cleomenes had been stirring up Greece to aid his vengeance against 

Athens. He advanced with a considerable army and seized 

B. C. 507. . . J 

the city of Eleusis, while the Boeotians ravaged the western, 

and the Chalcidians from Euboea the eastern borders of Attica. Undis¬ 
mayed by this threefold invasion, the Athenians marched first against 
Cleomenes; but the irrational conduct of the Spartan had disgusted his 
allies and defeated his designs before a battle could take place. The 
Athenians turned upon the Boeotians and defeated them with great 
slaughter; then pressed on without delay, crossed the channel which 
divided them from Euboea, and gained an equally decisive victory over 
the Chalcidians. 

Hippias now covered his old age with infamy, by going over to the 
king of Persia and exerting all his eloquence in directing the power of 
the empire against his native city. The Athenians sent to Artaphernes, 
begging him not to place confidence in one who had been banished only 
for his crimes. “ If you wish for peace, recall Hippias,” was the per¬ 
emptory reply. 

Grecian Colonies. 

84. The history of the other continental states is more or less involved 
in that of Sparta and Athens; but before entering upon the Persian wars, 
we will take a rapid survey of those foreign settlements which afforded an 
outlet for the enterprise and the crowded population of the Hellenic penin¬ 
sula. In very early times, colonies were led forth from Greece by leaders 
who were afterward worshiped as heroes in the states they founded. Fire, 
the emblem of civilization, was carried from the prytaneum of the mother 
city, and placed upon the new hearth-stone of the colony. The Agora, the 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


131 


Acropolis, the temples, and the peculiar worship of the oldei city were im¬ 
itated in the new. The colonists bore part in the religious festivals of the 
metropolis by delegates and offerings, and it was considered sacrilege to 
bear arms against the parent state. 

85. There was, however, a great difference 
in the relations of the several colonies with 
the states from which they sprang. The 
iEolian, Ionian, and Dorian settlements in 
Asia, and the Achaean in Italy, were inde¬ 
pendent states. Commerce, literature, and 
the arts flourished at an earlier period on 
the eastern side of the iEgean than in the 
cities of Greece. Homer, the father of Greek 
poetry, was an Ionian. Alcae'us and Sappho, 
the greatest of Greek poetesses, were natives 
of Lesbos. Ana'creon was an Ionian of 
Teos; and four of the Seven Wise Men of 
Greece lived in the Asiatic colonies. 

80. Miletus was for two centuries not only 
the chief of the Asiatic colonies, but the 
first commercial city in all Hellas. Her 
sailors penetrated to the most distant corners 
of the Mediterranean and its inlets, and 
eighty colonies were founded to protect and 
enlarge her commerce. Ephesus succeeded 
Miletus as chief of the Ionian cities. Its 
commerce was rather by land than sea; and instead of planting distant 
colonies, it extended its territory on the land at the expense of its Lydian 
neighbors. Phoccea, the most northerly of the Ionic cities, possessed a pow¬ 
erful navy, and its ships were known on the distant coasts of Gaul and 
Spain. The beautiful city of Massilia (now Marseilles) owed to them its 
origin. v 

87. The first Greek colony in Italy was at Cumce, near the modern 
Naples, which sprang from it. It is said to have been founded about 
1050 B. C., and continued five centuries the most flourishing city in Cam¬ 
pania. Syb'aris and Croto'na were Achaean colonies upon the Gulf of 
Taren'tum. Several native tribes became their subjects, and their domin¬ 
ions extended from sea to sea across the peninsula of Calabria. The Cro- 
tonians were early celebrated for the skill of their physicians, and for the 
number of their athletes who won prizes at the Olympic Games. The Sy¬ 
barites were noted for their wealth, luxury, and effeminacy. In public 
festivals they mustered 5,000 horsemen fully equipped, while Athens could 
only show 1,200 even for the grand Panathensea. 




























132 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


The fall of Sybaris, B. C. 510, was occasioned by war with the sister but 
now rival city Crotona. The popular party had supplanted an oligarchy in 
Sybaris, and the exiled citizens had taken refuge in Crotona. The Sybarites 
demanded their rendition. The Crotonians trembled, for they had to choose 
between two great perils : they must incur either the wrath of the gods by 
betraying suppliants, or the vengeance of the Sybarites, whose army was 
supposed to number 300,000 men. Pythagoras urged them to adopt the 
more generous alternative, and his disciple, Milo, the most celebrated 
athlete of his time, became their general. In a battle on the Trais the 
Crotonians were victorious. They became masters of Sybaris, and deter¬ 
mined to destroy it so thoroughly that it should never again be inhabited. 
For this purpose they turned the course of the river Crathis, so that it 
overflowed the city and buried its ruins in mud and sand. To this day a 
wall can be seen in the bed of the river when the water is low, the only 
monument of the ancient grandeur of Sybaris. 

88 . The people of Locri were the first of the Greeks who possessed a 
body of written laws. The ordinances of Zaleucus, a shepherd whom they 
made their legislator by the command of the Delphic oracle, were forty 
years earlier than those of Draco, which they resembled in the severity of 
their penalties. The Locrians, however, held them in so high esteem, that 
if any man wished to propose a new law or repeal an old one, he appeared 
in the public assembly with a rope around his neck, which was immediately 
tightened if he failed to convince his fellow-citizens of the wisdom of his 
suggestions. 

89. Rhegium , on the Sicilian Strait, was founded by the Chalcidians* 
of Euboea, but greatly increased by fugitives from the Spartans during the 
first and second Messenian wars. The straits and the opposite town in Sic¬ 
ily, formerly called Zan'cle, received a new name from these exiled people. 
Taren'tum was a Spartan colony founded about 708 B. C. Its harbor was 
the best and safest in the Tarentine Gulf, and after the fall of Sybaris it 
became the most flourishing city in Magna Grsecia. Though its soil was 
less fertile than that of other colonies, its pastures afforded the finest wool 
in all Italy. Tarentine horses were in great favor among the Greeks; and 
its shores supplied such a profusion of the shell-fish used for coloring, that 
“Tarentine purple” was second only to the Tyrian. So extensive were 
the manufactories of this dye, that great mounds may even yet be seen 
near the ancient harbor, composed wholly of broken shells of the murex. ' 

90. The prosperity of Magna Grsecia declined after the close of the 
sixth century B. C., when the warlike Samnites and Lucanians began to 
press southward from their homes in central Italy. The Greek colonies 
gradually lost their inland possessions, and became limited to mere trading 
settlements on the coast. 

91. Massilia, in Gaul, has already been mentioned as a colony of the 


HISTORY OF GREECE . 


133 


Tonic Phocceans. It exerted a controlling influence upon the Celtic tribes 
by which it was surrounded, and who derived from it the benefits of Greek 
letters and civilization. A Massiliot mariner, Pytheas, navigated the At¬ 
lantic and explored the western coasts of Europe, as far, at least, as Great 
Britain. Five colonies on the Spanish coast were founded by Massilia. 

92. The fertile island of Sicily early attracted the attention of the Greeks. 
The Carthaginians already occupied the western side of the island, but for 
two and a half centuries the commercial settlements of either people flour¬ 
ished side by side without collision. Twelve flourishing Greek cities sprang 
up within 150 years, among which Syracuse, on the eastern, and Agrigentum, 
on the southern coast, were the most important. Syracuse, the earliest, 
except Naxos, of the Sicilian colonies, was founded by Corinthians, B. C. 
734. Its position made it the door to the whole island, and in Roman times 
it was the capital of the province. In its greatest prosperity it contained 
half a million of inhabitants, and its walls were twenty-two miles in extent. 
Agrigentum, though of later origin (B. C. 582), grew so fast that it out¬ 
stripped its older neighbors. The poet Pindar called it the fairest of mortal 
cities, and its public buildings were among the most magnificent in the 
ancient world. 

93. African Colonies. Greek colonization was at first confined to the 
northern shores of the Mediterranean, Egypt and Carthage dividing be¬ 
tween them the southern. But the policy of Psammetichus, and, after him, 
of Amasis, favored the Greeks, who were thenceforth permitted to settle at 
Naucratis, and enjoy there a monopoly of the Mediterranean commerce of 
Egypt. Twenty years after the first establishment at Naucratis, Cyrene was 
founded by the people of Thera, a Spartan colony on the ^Egean. Unlike 
most Greek colonies, Cyrene was governed by kings during the first two 
centuries of its existence. 

94. The peninsula of Chalcid'ice, in Macedonia, was covered with the 
settlements of colonists from Chalcis and Eretria, from the former of which 
it derived its name. Potidce'a, on the same coast, was planted by Corinthians. 
Byzantium was founded by Megarians, on the strait which connects the 
Propontis with the Euxine. Few cities could boast so splendid a position; 
but the power of the Megarian colony bore little proportion to what it was 
afterward to attain as the capital of Constantine and the mistress of the 
world. The most northerly Grecian settlement was Istria, founded by Mi¬ 
lesians near the mouth of the Danube. 

recapitulation. 

Codr us, the last king of Athens, was succeeded during three centuries by 
archons for life, chosen from his family. Seven aiclions afterwaid leigned suc¬ 
cessively ten years each, and the government was then intrusted to a commis¬ 
sion of nine, annually elected. The people demanding written laws, Draco 


134 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


prepared a code of inhuman severity. A more moderate constitution was 
framed by Solon, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece; but the contention 
of the three rival factions of the Plain , the Shore, and the Mountain soon re¬ 
sulted in the subjection of Athens to the tyranny of Pisistratus. Twice expelled, 
Pisistratus twice re-established his power, and by his justice and liberal encour¬ 
agement of all the arts, consoled the people for his unwarranted seizure of the 
government. His son Hippias was expelled by the Alcmseoiiidse, with the aid 
of the Spartans. Clisthenes completed the liberal reforms of Solon, and intro¬ 
duced the singular custom of ostracism. In three attempts to overthrow the free 
constitution of Athens, the Spartans and their allies were signally defeated. 

Third Period. B. C. 500-338. 

95 . The details of the Ionian Revolt (B. C. 499-494) have been found in 
the History of Persia. * Reserving his vengeance for the European Greeks 
who had interfered in the quarrel, Darius sought to console the conquered 
Ionians for the loss of their political independence by greater personal 
freedom. Just laws, equal taxes, peace and good order began to restore 
their prosperity; and when Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius, suc¬ 
ceeded Artaphernes in the satrapy, he signalized his reign by removing all 
tyrants and restoring to the cities a republican form of government. All 
this was done to secure their friendship or neutrality in his approaching 
expedition against Greece. That expedition (B. C. 492) failed, as we have 
seen, in its principal object. 

96 . The next year messengers were sent by Darius to each of the states 

B of Greece, demanding earth and water, the customary sym¬ 

bols of obedience. None of the island states and few on the 

continent dared refuse. The people of Athens and Sparta returned an 
answer which could not be mistaken. The latter threw the envoys into a 
well, and the former into a pit where the vilest criminals were punished, 
telling them to get earth and water for themselves. 

97 . The youth and ill success of Mardonius led Darius to recall him, 
and place the command of his new expedition against the Greeks in the 
hands of Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, his own nephew. In the spring 
of 490 B. C., the great host was drawn up off the coast of Cilicia —a fleet 
of 600 triremes, carrying not less than 100,000 men. They sailed westward 
and ravaged the isle of Naxos, but spared Delos, the reputed birth-place 
ot Apollo and Artemis, because the Median Datis recognized them as iden¬ 
tical with his own national divinities, the sun and moon. The fleet then 
advanced to Euboea, Eretria being the first object of vengeance. Carystus, 
refusing to join the armament against her neighbors, was taken and de¬ 
stroyed. Eretria withstood a siege of six days; but the unhappy city was a 
prey to the same dissensions which constituted the fatal weakness of Greece, t 


* See Book II, § 34. 

t Almost every Grecian state was divided between two parties, which preferred 
respectively democracy and oligarchy; i. e., government by many and by few. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


135 


Two traitors of the oligarchical party opened the gates to the barbarians. 
The place was given up to plunder, the temples burnt, and the people en¬ 
slaved. 

08. A swift-footed messenger was now dispatched from Athens to Sparta 
imploring aid. The distance was ninety miles, and he reached his destina¬ 
tion the day after his departure. The Spartans did not refuse their assist¬ 
ance, but they declared that religion forbade their marching before the full 
moon, and it was now only the ninth day. The Persians were already 
landed on the coast of Attica, and, guided by Hippias, advanced to the 
plain of Marathon. The Athenian army, posted upon the heights, had to 
consider whether to await their tardy allies or meet these overwhelming 
numbers alone. At the last moment there arrived an unexpected reinforce¬ 
ment, which, though small in numbers, raised the spirits of the Athenians 
by the friendliness it expressed. It was the entire lighting population of 
the little town of Plattea, a thousand men in all, who came to testify their 
gratitude for a former service rendered by the Athenians. 

09. All the other generals, who were to have commanded in turn, gave 
up their days to Miltiades, whose genius and experience alike won their 
confidence; but he, fearful of arousing envy, waited until his own turn 
came, and then gave orders for battle. The sacrifices and prayers were 
offered, the trumpets sounded, and, chanting a battle-hymn, the eleven 
thousand Greeks rushed down from the heights where they had been 
encamped. Instead of the usual slow march of the phalanx, they trav¬ 
ersed the mile or more of level ground which separated them from the 
Persians at a full run, bearing their level spears in a straight, unwavering 
line.* 

The front rank of Asiatics fell instantly before this unusual assault; 
but the resistance was not less determined. Pushing upon the spears 
of the Greeks, in the attempt to make an opening in the phalanx where 
their short swords and daggers might serve them, the Persians freely 
sacrificed their lives. It was the belief of many on the field that the 
gigantic shade of Theseus, the great Attic hero, might be seen in the 
ranks. Night approached before the desperate conflict was decided. 
But the Greeks, though wearied with the long action, never wavered, 
and at length the shattered remains of the Asiatic host turned and 
fled, f 

100. The—Persians had brought with them a mass of white marble, 
with which they meant to erect upon the field of Marathon a monument 
of their victory. It was carved by Phidfias into a gigantic statue of 

*“The first Greeks,” says Herodotus, “who ever ran to meet a foe; the first, 
too, who beheld without dismay the garb and armor of the Medes, for hitherto 
in Greece the very name of Mede had excited terror.” 

f Read the movements of Datis after the battle, p. 86. 



136 


ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 


Nemesis, the impersonation of divine vengeance. From the brazen spoils 

of the Persians was cast that colossal statue 
of Athena Promachos, whose glittering spear 
and helmet, from the summit ol the Athenian 
citadel, could be seen far off at sea beyond 
the point of Sunium. The armed goddess, 
“First in the Fight,” seemed to be keeping 
a perpetual guard over her beloved city. 

101 . For a time after the victory at Mar¬ 
athon, Miltiades was the best beloved of the 
Athenians. Even while prince in the Cher- 
sonesus, he had won their gratitude by an¬ 
nexing Lemnos and Imbros to their domin¬ 
ions. To this claim on their regard he now 
added that of having delivered them from 
their greatest peril, and there was no limit 
to their confidence. When, therefore, he 
promised them a still more lucrative though 
less glorious enterprise than the recent one 
against the Persians, they were not slow to 
consent, though the conditions were a fleet 
of seventy ships and a large supply of men 
and money for his use, of which he was to 
render no account until his return. They were granted, and Miltiades set 
sail for the isle of Paros, which had furnished a trireme to 

B. C. 489. 

the Persians during the recent invasion. The chief city 
was besieged and on the point of being taken, when suddenly, for no 
sufficient cause, Miltiades burnt his fortifications, drew off his fleet, and 
returned to Athens, having no treasuiftes and only disgrace and loss to 
report as the result of his expedition. 

102 . The glory of Miltiades was now departed. He was accused by 
Xanthip'pus, a leader of the aristocracy, of having accepted a bribe from 
the Persians to withdraw from Paros. Severely wounded, Miltiades was 
brought into the court upon a couch; and although his brother Tisag'oras 
undertook his defense, the only plea he cared to make was in the two 
words, “Lemnos” and “Marathon.” The offense, if proved, was capital; 
but the people refused to sentence their deliverer to death. They com¬ 
muted his punishment to a fine of fifty talents; but before it was paid he 
expired from his wound. 

103 . The greatest citizen of Athens, after the death of Miltiades, was 
Aristides, called “the Just.” He was of noble birth and belonged to the 
Alcmaeonid party, but he was ardently devoted to the interests of the 
people. Stern toward crime, whether in friends or foes, he was yet mild 



























































































/ 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 137 

toward all persons; and so proverbial were liis truth and impartiality, 
that when he held the office of archon the courts of law were deserted, 
all suitors preferring to submit their causes to his arbitration. 

104 . His chief rival was Themis 7 tocles, a young man of great talents, 
and, perhaps, still greater ambition. At length his opposition rose to the 
pitch of proposing the ostracism, and Aristides was banished. It is said 
that, during the Noting, the great archon was requested by a man who 
could not wiite, to inscribe the name of Aristides on an oyster-shell for 
him. > Has he ever injured you ?” Aristides asked. “No,” said the man, 

nor do I even know him by sight; but it vexes me to hear him always 
called the Just. Aristides wrote his name on the shell, which was cast 
into the heap. As he left his native city he said, with his usual generosity, 

May the Athenian people never know a day which shall force them to 
remember Aristides! ” 

105 . Themistocles was now without a rival in Athens His acute mind 
perceived what his countrymen too willingly ignored, that the Persian in¬ 
vasions were only checked, not enjed. Proud of the victory of Marathon, 
the Athenians believed that the Persians would never again dare to attack 
them. But HCgina was yet powerful, and a fierce enmity had long existed 
between the two states. Their merchants regarded each other as rivals in 
trade, while the free people of Athens hated the oligarchy of iEgina. 
Themistocles resolved to turn this enmity to account, in arming Athens 
against the greater though more distant danger. He persuaded the citizens 
to construct a fleet which should surpass that of iEgina, and to apply to 
that purpose the revenues from the silver mines of Laurium, near the 
extremity of the Attic peninsula. 

Two hundred triremes were built and equipped, and a decree was passed 
which required twenty to bej^ued every year. Hitherto Attica had been 
more an agricultural than a mantime state; but Themistocles clearly saw 
that, with so small and sterile a territory, her only lasting power must be 
upon the sea. So s^enuous were his exertions, that in the ten years that 
intervene^ between the first and the second Persian wars, the Athenians 
had trained a large number of seamen, organized their naval power, and 
were ready to be as victorious at Salamis as they had been at Marathon. 

100 . In 481 B. C., a Hellenic Congress was held at Corinth. The 
command of the Greek forces, both by land and sea, was assigned to 
Sparta. ^TT appeal for cooperation was sent to the distant colonies in 
Sicily, as well as to Corcyra and Crete. Emissaries were also sent into 
Asia to watch the movements of the Persian army. They were seized at 
Sardis, and would have been put to death, had not Xerxes believed that 
their reports would do more to terrify and weaken than to assist their coun¬ 
trymen. He caused them to be led through his innumerable hosts, and to 
mark their splendid equipments, then to be dismissed in safety. 


138 


A SCI EXT HISTORY. 


107 . The most difficult duty of the Congress was to silence the quarrels- 
of the several states. Athens, by the entreaties of Themistocles, consented 
to peace and friendship with iEgina, and all the delegates formally bound 
their states to act Together as one body. Still many elements of disunion 
remained. Boeotia, with thfe honorable exceptions of Thespise and Plataea, 
sent earth and water to the Persian king. Argos was at once weakened 
and enraged against Sparta by the massacre of 6,000 of her citizens, who 
had been burned, by order of Cleomenes, in a temple where they had taken 
refuge. Unwilling to refuse her aid in the common danger, she consented 
to join the league only upon terms which Sparta refused to accept. 

108 . Even the gods seemed to waver, and the timid answers of the 
Pythia prevented some states from engaging in the war. The Athenian 
messengers at Delphi received an oracle that would have appalled less- 
steadfast minds. “Unhappy men!” cried the Pythia, “leave your houses 
and the ramparts of the city, and fly to the uttermost parts of the earth. 
Fire and keen Ares, compelling the Syrian chariot, shall destroy ; towers 
shall be overthrown, and temples destroyed by fire. Lo, now, even now, 
they stand dropping sweat, and their house-tops black with blood, and 
shaking with prophetic awe. Depart, and prepare for ill! ” 

100 . The Athenians put on the mourning garb of suppliants, and en¬ 
treated Apollo for a more favorable answer, declaring that they would not 
depart without it, but remain at his altar until they died. The second 
response was still more obscure, but possibly more hopeful. “ Athena is 
unable to appease the Olympian Zeus. Again, therefore, I speak, and my 
words are as adamant. All else within the bounds of Cecropia and the 
bosom of the divine Cithoeron shall fall and fail you. The wooden wall 
alone Zeus grants to Pallas, a refuge to your children and yourselves. 
Wait not for horse and foot; tarry liot the march of the mighty army; 
retreat even though they close upon you. O divine Salamis! thou shalt 
lose the sons of women, whether Demeter scatter or hoard her harvest!” 
Themistocles, who had, perhaps, dictated the response, now furnished an 
apt solution. The “ walls of wood,” he said, meant the fleet, in which the 
citizens and their children should take refuge. The last sentence threat¬ 
ened woe not to the Athenians, but to their foes, else why was Salamis 
called “ divine ” ? 

110 . Arriving with his vast army at the head of the Malian Gulf, 
B c 480 Xerxes sent a spy to ascertain the force sent against him. 

The messenger saw only the Spartan three hundred. They 
were engaged either in gymnastic exercises or in dressing their long hair 
as if for a festival. Demaratus, an exiled king of Sparta, was with the 
Persian army, and he was questioned by the great king as to the meaning 
of this behavior in the face of overwhelming danger. Demaratus replied, 
“ It is manifestly their intention, sire, to dispute the pass, for it is the 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


m 


custom of the Spartans to adorn themselves on the eve of battle. You 
are about to attack the flower of Grecian valor.” Xerxes could not yet 
believe that such a handful of men meant serious resistance. He waited 
four days to give them time to retreat, but sent a messenger in the interval 
to Leonidas, demanding his arms. “Come and take them!” replied the 
Spartan. 

111 . Battle of Thermopylae. On the fifth day the patience of the 
great king was exhausted. He sent a detachment of Medes and Cissians 
into the pass, with orders to bring its defenders alive into his presence. 
The assailants were repulsed with loss. The Immortal Band were then 
sent forward, but with no better success. The next day the contest was 
renewed, with great loss to the Persians and no signs of yielding on the 
part of the Greeks. But treachery now accomplished what force had failed 
to do.* A council of war was held among the defenders of the pass, and it 
was resolved to retreat, since defeat was certain. Leonidas did not oppose, 
but rather favored the decision on the part of the other generals; he only 
remarked that it was not permitted to Spartans to fly from any foe. He 
knew, too, that the Delphic oracle had declared that either Sparta must fall 
or a king of the blood of Hercules be sacrificed. He believed that he should 
save at least his hereditary kingdom, if not the whole of Greece, by the 
voluntary devotion of his life. 

The Thespians insisted upon sharing the fate of the Spartan three 
hundred. The four hundred Thebans, whose loyalty had been suspected 
from the first, were held as hostages. The remainder of the Greeks hastily 
withdrew before the arrival of the Persians. Thus left alone, the Spartans 
and Thespians went forth to meet the immense army, which was now in 
motion to attack them. The Orientals, when their courage failed, were 
driven into battle by the lash, and thousands were doomed to perish before 
the desperate valor of the Greeks. At length HydaPnes, with his Immortal 
Band, appeared from behind, and the Spartans drew back to the narrowest 
part of the pass, where they fought to the last breath, and were crushed at 
last by the numbers, rather than slain by the swords of the Persians. 

112 . The memory of Leonidas was honored by games celebrated around 
his tomb in Sparta, in which none but his countrymen were allowed to 
have part. A lion of stone was placed, by order of the Amphictyonic 
Council, oAJhe spot where he fell; and other monuments at the same 
place preserved the memory of his brave companions. That of the Three 
Hundred bore these words: “Go, stranger, and tell the Spartans that we 
obeyed the laws, and lib here!” 

113 . Learning the fate of Leonidas and his men, the fleet retired south¬ 
ward for the protection of the coast. The Spartans acted with their 


* See p. 90, g 51. 




140 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


accustomed selfishness, by leaving Athens and the rest of Greece to their 
fate, while they employed their land forces in fortifying the isthmus, to 
bar the entrance of their own peninsula. It was with difficulty that The- 
mistocles even persuaded his maritime allies to remain at anchor off' 
Salamis, long enough to allow some measures to be taken for the safety 
of the Athenian people. 

114 . Abandonment of Athens. Nor was it easy to persuade the 
Athenians themselves to leave their beloved city to the revengeful hands 
of barbarians. But as no other means remained for averting total de¬ 
struction, Themistocles had recourse, as usual, to a stratagem. The serpent 
sacred to Athena suddenly disappeared from the Acropolis, the cakes of 
honey were left untasted, and the priests announced that the goddess her¬ 
self had abandoned the city, and was ready to conduct her chosen warriors 
to the sea. The people now consented to depart. Women, children, and 
old men were hastily removed to places of greater security, while all who 
could fight betook themselves to the fleet. Only a few Athenians, either 
too poor to meet the expense of removal, or still convinced that the 
“ wooden walls ” of the oracle meant the citadel, remained and perished, 
after a brave but useless resistance, by the swords of the Persians. Beau¬ 
tiful Athens was reduced to a heap of ashes, in revenge for the destruction 
of Sardis, twenty years before. 

115 . The commanders of the fleet now resolved to withdraw from 
Salamis, and station themselves near the isthmus to cooperate with the 
Peloponnesian land forces. The Athenians strongly opposed this retreat, 
which would leave the refuges of their wives and children at the mercy 
of the barbarians. It was midnight, and the council had broken up, 
when Themistocles again sought the ship of EurybPades, and convincing 
him at length of the greater wisdom of his own plan, persuaded him to 
reassemble the council. The leaders were recalled from their ships and 
a violent discussion ensued. The Corinthian, Adimantus, opposed Tlie- 
mistocies not only with argument, but with insult. Alluding to the recent 
destruction of Athens, he maintained that one who had no longer a city to 
represent should have no voice in the deliberation. 

Themistocles kept his temper and replied with dignity and firmness. 
He showed that the naval advantages of the Greeks in the present war 
had always been in the narrow seas, where the immense numbers of the 
Persians gave them no superiority, while their better discipline and ac¬ 
quaintance with the currents and soundings were all in favor of the 
Greeks. He argued that by transferring the war to the Peloponnesus 
they would only attract thither the armies and ships of the Persians; 
while, by defeating them before they could arrive at the isthmus, they 
would preserve southern Greece from invasion. He ended by declaring 
that, if Salamis were abandoned, the Athenians would abandon Greece, 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


141 


and taking their wives and children on board their fleet, sail to the coasts 
of Italy, where the oracle had commanded them to found a new city. 

110 . Lest even this argument should not be sufficient, Themistocles 
had recourse to another of his wiles. He retired a moment from the 
council and dispatched a trusty messenger to the Persian fleet, assuring 
its commander that the Greeks, struck with consternation, w T ere preparing 
to flee, and urging him to seize the opportunity, while they were divided 
among themselves, to gain a decisive victory. The Persian admiral knew' 
too well the frequent dissensions of the Greeks to doubt the truth of the 
message. He immediately moved his squadrons to cut them off from the 
possibility of retreat. 

In the meantime Themistocles was again called from the council by 
the arrival of a messenger. It w T as his ancient rival, the brave and upright 
Aristides, still in exile through the influence of Themistocles, but watchful 
as ever for the interests of his country. He had crossed from iEgina in 
an open boat to inform the Greeks that they were surrounded by the Per¬ 
sians. “At any time,” said the just Athenian, “it would become us to 
forget our private dissensions, and at this time especially, in contending 
only who should most serve his country.” Themistocles led him at once 
to the council. His intelligence was soon confirmed by a Tenian deserter, 
and the leaders were now forced to unite in preparation for immediate 
battle. 

117 . Battle of Salamjs. When the sun arose upon the straits of 
Salamis, the Attic shores were seen lined with the glittering J8Q 

ranks of the Persian army, drawn up by order of Xerxes to 
intercept fugitives from the Grecian fleet. The king himself, on a throne 
of precious metals, sat to watch the coming contest. His ships were fully 
three times the number of the Greeks, and no serious disaster had yet 
stayed his progress. The Greeks advanced, singing that battle-song which 
the great poet iEschylus, who himself fought on this memorable day, has 
preserved for us: “ On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for the freedom of your 
country! strike for the freedom of your children and your wives — for the 
shrines of your fathers’ gods, and for the sepulchers of your sires! All, all 
are now staked upon your strife!” 

Themistocles held them back until a wind began to blow, which usually 
arose in the^-morning, causing a heavy swell in the channel. This 
seriously incommoded the cumbrous vessels of the Persians, while the 
light and compact Greek craft easily drove their brazen beaks into the 
sides of the enemy. The Athenians, on the right, soon broke the Phoeni¬ 
cian line which was opposed to them; and the Spartans, on the left, 
gained victories over the Ionian allies of the Persians. The sea was 
strewn with dead bodies, entangled in the masts and cordage of the ships. 
Aristides, who had been waiting with his command on the coast of Sala- 


142 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


mis, now crossed to the little island of Psyt'tali'a, and put the Persian 
garrison to the sword. Xerxes, from his throne on Mount iEgaleos, help¬ 
lessly watched the confusion and slaughter of his men. The contest lasted 
until evening, when the straits of Salamis were abandoned by the bar¬ 
barians. 

118 . When morning came, the Greeks were ready to renew the battle. 
The Persians had still a large fleet and a numerous army; and, in the 
night, the Phoenician transports had been joined so as to make a bridge 
between Salamis and the mainland. But this was only a feint to cover 
the real movement. The fleet was already under orders to sail to the 
Hellespont, and the army retired in a few days to Boeotia. Leaving 
300,000 men with Mardonius to renew the war in the following year, 
Xerxes hastened into Asia. His army was reduced on the way by 
famine and pestilence, and it was but a fragment of the great host 
which had crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 480, that returned in 
the autumn. 

119 . As spring opened, Mardonius prepared to renew the war; but first 

he sought to accomplish by diplomacy what he had hitherto 

/' • / 1 ). 

failed to do by force. Deeply impressed with the valor of 
the Athenians, he was sure that if he could withdraw them from the con¬ 
federacy, the rest of Greece would be an easy prey. To this end he sent 
Alexander I., king of Macedon, his ally, but a former friend of the Athe¬ 
nians, to flatter them with promises of favor and solicit their alliance. 
The Athenians refused him an audience until they had time to summon 
delegates from Sparta. When the Spartans had arrived, Alexander deliv¬ 
ered his message. The great king offered to the Athenians forgiveness of 
the injuries they had done him, the restoration of their country and its 
extension over neighboring territories, the free enjoyment of their own 
laws, and the means of rebuilding all their temples. He urged the Athe¬ 
nians to embrace so favorable an offer, for to them alone of all the Greeks 
was forgiveness extended. 

120 . The Athenians replied: “We are not ignorant of the power of the 
Mede, but for the sake of freedom we will resist that power as we can. 
Bear back to Mardonius this our answer: So long as yonder sun continues 
his course, so long we forswear all friendship .with Xerxes; so long, con¬ 
fiding in the aid of our gods and heroes, whose shrines and altars he has 
burnt, we will struggle against him for revenge. As for you, Spartans, 
knowing our spirit, you should be ashamed to fear our alliance with the 
barbarian. Send your forces into the field without delay. The enemy will 
be upon us when he knows our answer. Let us meet him in Boeotia 
before he proceed to Attica.” 

121 . The Athenians had rightly judged the immediateness of the danger. 
Scarcely was their answer received when the Persian general was in motion, 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


143 


and advanced by rapid marches to the borders of Attica. He was re¬ 
enforced at every halt by northern Greeks, moved either by terror of his 
power or by long-standing jealousies against the members of the League. 
The Attic territory was utterly desolate and Athens a second time deserted, 
laking possession ot that city, Mardonius dispatched a Greek messenger 
to Salamis, repeating his former propositions, which were as instantly 
rejected as before. 

The Athenians were a second time homeless, and, for the moment, 
standing alone against the enemies of Greece. The Spartans were en¬ 
gaged in some long-continued solemnities —perhaps the funeral of their 
regent, Cleom brotus and allowed the Athenian messengers to wait ten 
da\ s for an answer. ^Not until the indignant envoys had threatened to 
make terms with Mardonius and leave Sparta to her fate, did the ephors 
bestir themselves, but then it was with true Spartan energy and dispatch. 
Five thousand Spartans and 35,000 slaves were sent, under the command 
of Pausanias, the new regent, to whom the ephors added a guard of 5,000 
heavy-armed Laconians. 

122 . Hearing of the advance of the Spartans, the Persian thought best 
to retreat. He again set fire to Athens, leveled to the ground whatever 
remained of its walls and temples, and retired into Bmotia. Here he 
arranged his camp on a branch of the Asopus, not far from the city of 
Platsea. The Spartans followed, having been joined at the isthmus by the 
Peloponnesian allies, and, at Eleusis, by the Athenians. The Greek forces 
occupied the lower slopes of Mount Cithseron, with the river before them, 
separating them from the Persians. 

123 . Battle of Erythr^e. The battle was opened by the Persian 
•cavalry, commanded by Masis'tius, the most illustrious general in the 
army, except Mardonius. His magnificent person, clad in complete scale- 
armor of gold and burnished brass, was conspicuous upon the battle-field; 
and his horsemen, then the most famous in the world for their skill and 
bravery, severely harassed the Megarians, who were posted on the open 
plain. 01ym / piodo / rus with a select body of Athenians went to their 
assistance, and Masistius spurred his Nissean steed across the field to meet 
him. In the sharp combat which followed, the Persian was unhorsed, 
and as he lay along the ground was assailed by a swarm of enemies. 
The heavy armor, which prevented his rising, protected him from their 
weapons, until, at length, an opening in his visor allowed a lance to reach 
his brain. His death decided the fate of the battle. 

124 . After this victory the Greek army moved nearer to Platsea, where 
was a more abundant supply of water and a more convenient ground. It 
was the strongest force which the Persians had yet encountered in Greece, 
numbering, with allies and attendants, 110,000 men. For ten days they 
lay facing each other with no important action. The Persians, however. 


144 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


intercepted convoys of provisions, and succeeded in choking up the 
spring which supplied the Greeks with water, while, by their arrows and 
javelins, they prevented their approach to the river. Pausanias then 
resolved to fall back to a level and well-watered meadow still nearer to 
Platsea. 

125. Battle of Plat^a. The Spartans were attacked while on the 

march, and sent immediately to the Athenians for aid. The 

£5. C. 479* 

latter marched to their assistance, but were intercepted by the 
Ionian allies of the Persians, and cut off from the intended rescue. Pausa¬ 
nias, thus compelled to engage with a small portion of his army, ordered a 
solemn sacrifice, and his men stood awaiting the result, unflinching, though 
exposed to a storm of Persian arrows. The omens were unfavorable, and the 
sacrifices were again and again renewed. At length Pausanias, lifting his 
eyes streaming with tears toward the temple of Hera, besought the god¬ 
dess that if fate forbade the Greeks to conquer, they might, at least, die 
like men. At this moment the sacrifices assumed a more favorable aspect, 
and the order for battle was given. 

The Spartan phalanx in one dense mass moved slowly but steadily 
against the Persians. The latter acted with wonderful resolution, seizing 
the pikes of the Spartans or snatching away their shields, while they 
wrestled with them hand to hand. Mardonius himself, at the head of his 
chosen guards, fought in the foremost ranks, and animated the courage of 
his men both by word and example. But he received a mortal wound, 
and his followers, dismayed by his fall, fled in confusion to their camp. 
Here they again made a stand against the Lacedaemonians, who were un¬ 
skilled in attacking fortified places, until the Athenians, who had mean¬ 
while conquered their Ionian opponents, came up and completed the 
victory. They scaled the ramparts and effected a breach, through which 
the remainder of the Greeks poured into the camp. The Persians now 
yielded to the general rout. They fled in all directions, but were so 
fiercely pursued, that, except the 40,000 of Artaba / zus, who had already 
secured their retreat, scarcely 3,000 escaped. The victory was complete, 
and immense treasures of gold and silver, besides horses, camels, and rich 
raiment, remained in the hands of the Greeks. 

120. Mounds were raised over the brave and illustrious dead. Only to 
Aristodemus, the Spartan, who had incurred disgrace by returning alive 
from Thermopylae, no honors were decreed. The soil of Platsea became a 
second “ Holy Land.” Thither every year embassies from the states of 
Greece came to offer sacrifices to Zeus, the deliverer, and every fifth year 
games were celebrated in honor of liberty. The Platseans themselves, 
exempt henceforth from military service, became the guardians of the 
sacred ground, and to attack them was decreed to be sacrilege. 

127. On the day of the victory of Plateea, a no less important advantage 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


145 


was gained by the Greeks at Mycale, in Ionia. Here a large land force, 
under Tigra'nes, had been stationed by Xerxes for the protection of the 


coast, and hither the Persian fleet retired before the advance of the Greeks. 


The Persians drew their ships to land, and protected them by intrench- 
ments and strong earth-works. The Greeks, finding the sea deserted, 
approached near enough to make the voice of a herald heard, who ex¬ 
horted the Ionians in the army of Tigranes to remember that they, too, 
had a share in the liberties of Greece. The Persians, not understanding 
the language of the herald, began to distrust their allies. They deprived 
the Samians of their arms, and placed the Milesians at a distance from the 
front to guard the path to the heights of Mycale. The Greeks, having 
landed, drove the Persians from the shore to their intrenchments, and the 
Athenians first became engaged in storming the barricades. The native 
Persians fought fiercely, even after their general was slain, and fell at last 
within their camp. All the islands which had given assistance to the 
Medes were now received into the Hellenic League, with solemn pledges 
never again to desert it. 


RECAPITULATION. 


Athens incurred the vengeance of the Persian king by aiding a revolt of the 
Asiatic Greeks. The first invasion of Greece, by Mardonius, failed; a second and 
larger force, under Datis and Artaphernes, ravaged Naxos and part of Euboea, 
but was defeated by Miltiades and 11,000 Greeks, at Marathon. An unsuccessful 
attempt upon Paros destroyed the fame of Miltiades, and he died under a charge 
of having received bribes from the Persians. Aristides succeeded him in popular 
favor, but was at length exiled through the influence of Themistocles. The latter 
urged the naval preparations of his countrymen, and Athens then first became 
a great maritime power. A congress at Corinth, B. C. 481, united the Greek forces 
under Spartan command. The Delphic oracle promising safety to the Athenians 
only within walls of wood, they abandoned their city and took refuge on the 
fleet. A few hundreds of Spartans and Thespians withstood the Persian host at 
Thermopylae, until betrayed by a Malian guide. The invaders were totally de¬ 
feated in a naval combat at Salamis, and Xerxes retired to Persia. Mardonius, 
failing to end the war by diplomacy, w’as finally overthrown in the battles ol 
Erythree and Plateea; and the land and naval forces of the Persians were at the 
same time destroyed at Mycale, in Asia Mmor. 



Growth 


128. Though their immediate danger was past, the Greeks did not suffer 
their enemies to rest. A fleet of fifty vessels was prepared, with the inten¬ 
tion to rescue every Greek city in Europe or Asia which still felt the power 
of the Persian. Though Athens, as before, furnished more ships than all 
the other states, Pausanias commanded. He first wrested Cyprus from the 
Persians and then proceeded to Byzantium, which he also liberated and 
occupied as a residence for seven years. 


A. II.—10. 


146 


ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 


129. Siege of Sestus. The Athenians resolved to win back the colony 

founded by Miltiades in the Chersonesus. The whole re- 
J3 0 478 " 

maining force of the Persians made a last stand at Sestus, 
and endured a siege so obstinate that they even consumed the leather of 
their harness and bedding for want of food. They yielded at last, and the 
natives gladly welcomed back the Greeks. Laden with treasures and se¬ 
cure of a well-earned peace, the Athenians returned home in triumph. 
Among their relics, the broken fragments and cables of the Hellespontine 
bridge of Xerxes were long to be seen in the temples of Athens. 



130. Notwithstanding her losses, Athens came forth from the Persian 
wars stronger, and with a higher rank among the Grecian states, than she 
had entered them. Her efforts and sacrifices had called forth a power 
which she was scarcely conscious of possessing, and with the consent of 
Sparta, whose constitution illy fitted her for distant enterprises, Athens 
was now recognized as the leader of the Greeks in foreign affairs. In the 
meantime important changes had occurred in her internal policy. The 
power of the great families was broken, and the common people, who had 
borne the brunt of hardship and peril in the war, were recognized as an 
important element in the state. Aristides, though the leader of the aris¬ 
tocratic party, proposed and carried an amendment by which all the people, 
without distinction of rank or property, obtained a share in the govern¬ 
ment, the only requisites being intelligence and moral character. The 
archonship. which had hitherto been confined to the eupatrids, was now 
thrown open to all classes. 

Themistocles was the popular leader. His first care was the rebuilding 















HISTORY OF GREECE. 


147 


of the walls of Athens, and he provided means by levying contributions 
upon those islands which had given aid to the Persians. The jealous op¬ 
position of the Spartans was overcome by gold and management. To 
accommodate the greatly increased navy, he improved the port of Piraeus 
and protected it by strong walls. He hoped, by building up the naval 
power of Athens, to place her at the head of a great maritime empire, 
comprising the islands and Asiatic coasts of the iEgean, thus eclipsing the 
Spartan supremacy on the Grecian mainland. 

181. Pausanias, now commanding at Byzantium, had lost all his Spartan 
virtue in the pride of conquest and the luxury of wealth. After the vic¬ 
tory at Plataea, he had engraven on the golden tripod dedicated to Apollo . 
by all the Greeks, an inscription in which he claimed for himself the ex¬ 
clusive glory. His government, justly offended, caused this inscription to 
be replaced by another, naming only the confederate cities, and omitting 
all mention of Pausanias. Both the pride and the talents of the Spartan 
commander were too great for the private station into which he must soon 
descend; for though so long generalissimo of the Greeks, he was not a 
king in Sparta, but only regent for the son of Leonidas. The conversation 
of his Persian captives, some of whom were relatives of the great king, 
opened brilliant views to the ambition and avarice of Pausanias. His own 
relative, Demara / tus, had exchanged the austere life of a Spartan for all 
the luxury of an Oriental palace, with the government of three iEolian 
cities. The greater talents of Pausanias would entitle him to yet higher 
dignities and honors. 

In view of these glittering bribes, the victor of Platsea was willing to 
become the betrayer of his country. He released his noble prisoners with 
messages to Xerxes, in which he offered to subject Sparta and the rest of 
Greece to the Persian dominion, on condition of receiving the king’s 
daughter in marriage, with wealth and power suitable to his rank. 
Xerxes welcomed these overtures with delight, and immediately sent 
commissioners to continue the negotiation. Exalted by his new hopes, 
the pride of Pausanias became unbearable. He assumed the dress of a 
Persian satrapy, and journeyed into Thrace in true Oriental pomp, with a 
«;uard of Persians and Egyptians. He insulted the Greek officers and 
.subjected the common soldiers to the lash. Even Aristides was rudely 
repulsed when he sought to know the reason of this extraordinary 
conduct. 

Reports reached the Spartan government, and Pausanias was recalled. 
He was tried and convicted for various personal and minor offenses, 
but the proof of his treason was thought insufficient to convict him. 
He returned to Byzantium without the permission of his government, 
but was expelled by the allies for his shameful conduct. Again re¬ 
called to Sparta, he was tried and imprisoned, only to escape and renew 


148 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


his intrigues both with the Persians and with the Helots at home, to 
whom he promised freedom and the rights of citizenship if they would 
aid him to overthrow the government and make himself tyrant. 

He was caught, at length, in his own snares. A man named Argiiius, 
whom he had intrusted with a letter to Artabazus, remembered that none 
of those whom he had seen dispatched on similar errands, had returned. 
He broke the seal and found, together with much treasonable matter, 

directions for his own death as soon as he should arrive at 

B.C. 471. 

the satrap’s court. The letter was laid-before the ephors, 
and the treason being now fully proved, preparations were made to arrest 
Pausanias. He was warned and took refuge in the temple of Athena 
Chalcioe'cus. Here he suffered the penalty of his crimes. The roof was 
removed, apd his own mother brought the first stone to block up the 
entrance to the temple. When he was known to be nearly exhausted by 
hunger and exposure, he was brought out to die in the open air, lest his 
death should pollute the shrine of the goddess. 

132. On the first recall of Pausanias, B. C. 477, the allies had unani¬ 
mously placed Aristides at their head. This was the turning-point of a 
peaceful revolution which made Athens, instead of Sparta, the leading 
state in Greece. Cautious still of awakening jealousy, Aristides named,, 
not Athens, but the sacred isle of Delos, as the seat of the Hellenic 
League. Here the Congress met, and here was the common treasury, 
filled by the contributions of all the Grecian states, for the defense of the 
vEgean coasts and the furtherance of active operations against the Per¬ 
sians. In the assessment of these taxes, Aristides acted with so much wisdom 
and justice, that, though all the treasures of Greece were in his power, no 
word of accusation or complaint was uttered by any of the allies. 

133. Having thus laid the foundation of Athenian supremacy by his 

moderation, Aristides retired from command, and was sue- 
B. vj« 4/6. ^ 

ceeded by Cimon, the son of Miltiades. This young noble 
was distinguished by his frank and generous manners, as well as by his 
bravery in war, which had already been proved against the Persians. 
The recovery of his father’s estates in the Chersonesus gave him immense 
wealth, which he used in the most liberal manner. He kept open table 
for men of all ranks, and was followed in the streets by a train of 
servants laden with cloaks, which they gave to any needy person whom 
they met. At the same time he administered to the wants of the more 
sensitive by charities delicately and secretly offered. Though doubtless 
injurious to the spirit of the Athenian people, this liberality was gladly 
accepted, and resulted in unbounded popularity to Cimon. His brave 
and sincere character commended him to the Spartans, and of all the 
Athenians he was probably the most acceptable leader to the allies. 

134. His first expedition was against the Thracian town Ei'on, now 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


149 


held by a Persian garrison. The town was reduced by famine, when its 
governor, fearing the displeasure of Xerxes more than death, placed 
himself, his family, and his treasures upon a funeral pile, and perished 
by fire. The place surrendered, and its defenders were sold as slaves. 
Cimon then proceeded to Scyrus, whose people had incurred the ven- 
geauce of the League by their piratical practices. The pirates were 
expelled, and the place occupied by an Attic colony. As the fear of 
Asiatic invasion subsided, the bond between the allies and their chief 
relaxed. Carystus refused to pay tribute, and Naxos, the most important 
of the Cyclades, openly revolted. Cimon was on the alert. Carystus 
was subdued, and a powerful fleet was led against Naxos. The siege 
was long and obstinate, but it resulted in favor of Athens. The island 
was reduced from an ally to a subject. 

135. Battle of the Eurymedon. The victorious fleet of Cimon 

now advanced along the southern shores of Asia Minor, 

. „ . , ’ B. C. 466. 

and all the Greek cities, either encouraged by his presence 

or overawed by his power, seized the opportunity to throw off* the yoke 
of the Persians. His force was increased by their accession when he 
came to the river Eurymedon, in Pamphylia, and found a Persian fleet 
moored near its entrance, and a powerful army drawn up upon the banks. 
Already more numerous than the Greeks, they were expecting reinforce¬ 
ments from Cyprus; but Cimon, preferring to attack them without delay, 
sailed up the river and engaged their fleet. The Persians fought but 
feebly, and as they were driven to the narrow and shallow portion of the 
river, they forsook their ships and joined the army on the land. Cimon 
increased his ow r n fleet by two hundred of the deserted triremes, beside 
destroying many. 

Thus victorious on the water, the men demanded to be led on shore, 
where the Persian army stood in close array. Fatigued with the sea fight, 
it was hazardous to land in the face of a superior enemy still fresh and 
unworn, but tlie-zeal of the Greeks surmounted all objections. The second 
battle was more closely contested than the first; many noble Athenians 
fell, but victory came at last; the field and the spoils remained to the 
Greeks. To make his victory complete, Cimon proceeded to Cyprus, 
where the Phoenician reinforcements were still detained. These were 
wholly captured or destroyed, and the immense treasure which fell into 
the hands of the victors increased the splendor of Athens. The tide of 
war had now rolled back so powerfully upon Persia, that the coasts of 
Asiatic Greece were free from all danger. No Persian troops came 
within a day’s journey on horseback of the Grecian seas, whose waters 
were swept clear of Persian sails. 

136. Aristides was now dead, and Themistocles in exile, having been 
ostracised in 471 B. C. Cimon was therefore both the greatest and 


150 


Ay Cl ENT HISTORY. 


richest of the Athenians; and while his wealth was freely used for the 
adornment of Athens and the pleasure of her citizens, it continually added 
to his power. He planted the market-place with Oriental plane-trees; laid 
out in walks and adorned with groves and fountains the Acade / mia, after- 
ward made celebrated by the teachings of Plato; he erected beautiful col¬ 
onnades of marble, where the Athenians long loved to assemble for social 
intercourse; and he caused the dramatic entertainments to be celebrated 
with greater elegance and brilliancy. With this increase of wealth, the 
tastes of the citizens became luxurious, and Athens rose from her poverty 
and secondary rank to be not only the most powerful, but the most mag¬ 
nificent of Grecian cities. 

187. Though of the opposite political party to Tliemistocles, Cimon 
carried forward that statesman’s great design of exalting by all means the 
naval power of Athens. To this end he yielded to the request of the 
allies, who desired to commute their quotas of ships or men for the 
general defense into a money payment. Other admirals had been less 
accommodating, but Cimon masked a profound policy under his apparent 
good-nature. The forces of the other states became enfeebled by want of 
discipline, while the Athenians were not only enriched by their tribute, 
but strengthened in the hardy drill of the soldier and sailor, which Cimon 
never suffered them to relax. 

188. The fall of Themistocles was indirectly brought about by that of 
Pausanias. The great Athenian, living in exile, but watchful as ever in 
all that concerned the interests of Greece, had entered so far into the 
intrigues of Pausanias as to become possessed of all his plans. The 
Spartan ephors, finding his letters among the papers of Pausanias, and 
glad of such a pretext against their old enemy, sent them to Athens, 
accusing him of a share in the conspiracy. The party led by Cimon and 
friendly to Sparta was now predominant in Athens, and the people lis¬ 
tened too readily to these suspicions. A combined force of Spartan and 
Athenian troops was sent forth, with orders to seize Themistocles wherever 
he could be found. 

The exile, after many adventures, took refuge at the court of Persia, 

that power which, more than any man living, he had con- 

C. 466* 

tributed to destroy, but which was ever personally generouc 
toward its foes. The three cities, Myus, Lamp'sacus, and Magnesia, were 
assigned him for his support. In the latter city he passed his remaining 
days in affluence and honor. Two accounts have been given of his death. 
The more probable one is, that when Egypt revolted and was aided by 
Athens (B. C. 449), the Persian king called upon Themistocles to make 
good his promises and begin operations against Greece. But the Athenian 
had only wished to escape from his ungrateful countrymen, not to injure 
them, and he could not help to destroy that supremacy of Athens which 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


151 


he had spent the best years of his life in building up. Falsehood to the 
great king seemed to him a less heinous crime than treason against his 
country. He made a solemn sacrifice to the gods, took leave of his friends, 
and ended his days by poison. 

139. The Thasians, meanwhile, had a contest with Athens for some 

gold mines in Thrace. Cimon conducted a fleet to Thasos, 

. _ _ . B. C. 465. 

gained a naval victory, and began a three years’ siege of the 

principal town. The Thasians sent to Sparta for help, and that state was 
preparing to render it with great alacrity, when her attention was suddenly 
absorbed at home by unforeseen calamities. An earthquake of unprece¬ 
dented violence first destroyed the city. Great rocks from „ „ „ 
Mount Taygetus rolled into the streets, and multitudes of 
persons were engulfed or buried beneath the ruins of their houses. The 
shocks were long-continued, and terror of the supposed wrath of Heaven 
was added to the anguish of poverty and bereavement. The dreaded ven¬ 
geance soon appeared in human form ; for the persecuted Helots, hearing 
the signal of their deliverance in the stroke of doom to Sparta, flocked 
together from the fields and villages, and mingled their revenge with 
the commotions of Nature. 

It was a terrible moment for Sparta; but her king, Archidamus, was 
true to the stern valor of his race. The shocks of the earthquake had 
hardly ceased, when he ordered the trumpets to sound to arms. Even at 
that fearful moment Spartan discipline prevailed. Every man who sur¬ 
vived hastened to the king, and when the disorderly, servile crowd ap¬ 
proached, they found a disciplined force ready to resist them. Sparta was 
saved for the moment; the insurgents fled and scattered themselves over 
the country, calling to their standard all who were oppressed. The Mes- 
senians rose in a mass, seized Ithome, where their never-forgotten hero, 
Aristomenes, had so long withstood the Lacedaemonian arms, fortified it 
anew, and formally declared war against Sparta. The ten years’ conflict 
which followed is known as the Third Messenian War (1>. C. 464-455). 

In her extremity, Sparta sent to Athens for aid, and the appeal produced 
a violent controversy between the two parties into which that city was 
divided. Cimon favored the Spartans; he had always held up their brave 
and hardy character as a model to his countrymen, and had even sacrificed 
much of his popularity by naming his son Lacedsemonius. When others 
urged that it was well the pride of Sparta should be humbled, and her 
power for mischief curtailed, Cimon exhorted his countrymen not to suffer 
Greece to be maimed by the loss ot one of her two great powers, thus de¬ 
priving Athens of her companion. His generous counsel pievailed, and 
Cimon led a strong force against the insurgents, who were now driven 
from the open country and compelled to shut themselves up in the castle 

of Ithome. 


152 


A yCIEST HIST OR Y. 


140. The intiuence of Cimon had greatly declined at Athens. The 
democratic party had recovered from its loss in Themistocles, for a new 
leader was arising whose popularity and services to the state were destined 
to eclipse even the great men who had preceded him. This was Pedicles, 
the son of that Xanthippus who had impeached Miltiades. His mother 
was niece of Clisthenes, who is called the second founder of the Athenian 
constitution. Born of an illustrious family, and educated in all the oppor¬ 
tunities of Athenian camps and schools, Pericles was said to have nothing 
to contend against except his advantages. His beautiful face, winning 
manners, and musical voice reminded the oldest citizens of Pisistratus; 
and the vigilance with which the Athenians guarded their liberties, 
turned the admiration of some into jealousy. Pericles, however, made no 
haste to enter on his public career, but prepared himself by long and dili¬ 
gent study for the influence he hoped to attain. He sought the wisest 
teachers, and became skilled in the science of government, while he culti¬ 
vated his gifts in oratory by training in all the arts of expression. 

Anaxagoras, the first Greek philosopher who believed in one supreme 
Intelligence, creating and governing the universe, was the especial friend 
and instructor of Pericles, and to his sublime doctrines men attributed the 
elevation and purity of the young statesman’s eloquence. Instead of rely¬ 
ing solely upon the wisdom of his counsels, like Themistocles, or upon his 
natural gifts, like Pisistratus, Pericles chose every word with care, and was 
the first who committed his orations to writing, that he might subject every 
sentence to the highest polish of which it was capable. The Athenian 
people, the most sensitive, perhaps, to beauty of style of any that ever 
existed, enjoyed with keen delight the clear reasoning and brilliant lan¬ 
guage which characterized the discourses of Pericles. Nor was his perfec¬ 
tion of detail gained by any sacrifice of energy. His public speaking was 
compared to thunder and lightning, and he was said to carry the weapons 
of Zeus upon his tongue. Above all, the sweetness of his temper, and the 
command which philosophy had enabled him to gain over his passions, 
gave him advantage over less disciplined orators. The fiercest debate or 
the most insulting interruptions never disturbed for a moment the cheerful 
and dignified composure of his manner. 

141. Thasos surrendered B. C. 463; its walls were leveled, its shipping 
transferred to the Athenians, and all its claims upon the Thracian gold 
mines were given up. The people were compelled to pay all their arrears 
of tribute to the Delian treasury, beside engaging to meet their dues 
punctually in future. 

142. A second time the Spartans asked the aid of Athens in their servile 

„ _ war, and Cimon again led an army to their relief. But the 

B. C. 4bl. 7 . ° ^ 

superiority of the Athenians in siege operations aroused the 
envy of the Lacedemonians, even when employed in their defense; and the 














































_ 














- .* 


















WEST VIEW OF THE ACROPOLIS 


























































































































































































































HISTORY OF GREECE. 


153 


long siege of Itliome afforded time for the rivalries of the two nations to 
break out into open feuds. The Spartans declared that they had no further 
need of the Athenians, and dismissed their troops. Other allies were re¬ 
tained, including iEgina, the ancient rival of Athens. The latter, consider¬ 
ing herself insulted, made an alliance with the Argives and the Aleuads of 
Thessaly against Sparta. The Hellenic treasury was removed from Delos 
to Athens, for safe keeping, it was said, against the needy and rapacious 
hands of the Spartans. 

The popular resentment naturally extended itself to Cimon. The favor 
with which he was regarded in Sparta was now his greatest crime. The 
Athenians had indeed some reason to fear, for the Spartan nobles always 
maintained a party in their city who were supposed to be secretly plotting 
against its free government. However honestly Cimon supported aristocratic 
principles, the people, with equal honesty and greater wisdom, opposed him. 
He was subjected to the ostracism and banished for ten years. 

RECAPITULATION. 

The power of Athens was increased by the Persian war; and her home gov¬ 
ernment, which had been confined to the nobles, was thrown open to the people. 
Themistocles rebuilt the walls and improved the harbor. Pausanias, becoming a 
traitor, died of starvation in the temple of Athena, at Sparta. Athens became 
the chief of the Hellenic League, whose seat and treasury were at Delos. Cimon, 
son of Miltiades, in command of the allied forces, captured Eion, cleared Scyros 
of pirates, subdued rebellions in Carystus and Naxos, and conquered the Persians, 
both on sea and land, in the battle of the Eurymedon. He beautified Athens by 
a liberal use of his enormous wealth, and improved the military and naval dis¬ 
cipline of his fellow-citizens, at the expense of their allies. Themistocles, exiled 
through suspicion, took refuge in the Persian dominion, where he died. Sparta 
suffered a double calamity, in an earthquake and a servile rebellion, known as 
the Third Messenian War. Her insulting treatment of her Athenian aids de¬ 
stroyed the popularity of Cimon; and Pericles, the most accomplished of the 
Athenians, rose intp_power. 

Supremacy of Athens. 

143. Athens, under the lead of Pericles, now entered upon the most 
brilliant period of her history. A dispute between Megara and Corinth 
involved Athens on the former and Sparta on the latter side, and thus led 
to the First Peloponnesian War (B. C. 460-457). At the same time, a 
more distant enterprise tempted the Athenians. Egypt had now cast off 
the last semblance of obedience to Persia, and hailed a deliverer and sov¬ 
ereign in the person of Inarus. In looking about him for allies, Inarus 
naturally sought the aid of those who, at Marathon, had first broken the 
power of the Persians. The Athenians engaged gladly in the war, and 
sent a fleet of two hundred triremes to the Nile. The events of the cam¬ 
paign have been recorded in the History of Persia. * 

* See p. 93. 




154 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


144. The war in Greece went on with great vigor. The Athenians were 

defeated at Halae, but soon after won a naval battle at Cec'ryphali'a,* 

which more than retrieved their reputation. iEgina now joined in the 

war, and the Athenians landed upon the island and besieged the city. A 

Peloponnesian army came to the aid of iEgina, while the Corinthians 

seized the opportunity to invade Megaris. With all her forces employed 

either in Egypt or iEgina, they hoped that Athens would be overcome by 

this new attack. But Myron'ides mustered an army of boys and old men 

' „ . exempt from service, and marched at once to the assistance 

B. C. 4oo 

of Megara. In the battle which ensued, neither party ac¬ 
knowledged itself defeated, but the Corinthians withdrew to their capital, 
while the Athenians held the field and erected a trophy. Unable to bear 
the reproaches of their government, the Corinthian army returned after 
twelve days and raised a monument upon the field, claiming that the 
victory had been theirs. But the Athenians now attacked them anew, 
and inflicted a decisive and disgraceful defeat. 

145. In the midst of these enterprises abroad, great public works were 
going on in Athens. Cirnon had already planned a line of fortifications 
to unite the city with its ports, and the spoils of the Persians, taken at the 
Eurymedon and at Cyprus, had been assigned for the expense. Under the 
direction of Pericles, the building began in earnest. One wall was ex¬ 
tended to Phalerum, and another to Piraeus; but as it was found difficult 
to defend so large an inclosed space, a second wall to Piraeus was added, at 
a distance of 550 feet from the first. Between these Long Walls a contin¬ 
uous line of dwellings bordered the carriage-road, nearly five miles in 
length, which extended from Athens to its principal harbor. 

146. The Spartans were still too much absorbed in the siege of Ithome 
to interfere with the great and sudden advancement of Athenian power; 
but a disaster which befell their little ancestral land of Doris, in war with 
the Phocians, withdrew their attention even from their own troubles. An 
army of 1,500 heavy-armed Spartans and 10,000 auxiliaries, sent to the 
relief of the Dorians, drove the Phocians from the town they had taken, 
and secured their future good behavior by a treaty. The retreat of the 
Spartans was now cut off by the Athenian fleet in the Gulf of Corinth 
and the garrison in the Megarid. Their commander, Nicome'des, had, 
however, reasons beyond the necessity of the case for remaining a while 
in Boeotia. He was plotting with the aristocratic party in Athens for the 
return of Cimon, and he also desired to increase the power of Thebes, as a 
near and dangerous rival to the former city. 

The conspiracy becoming known, the Athenians were roused to revenge. 
They raised an army of 14,000 men and marched against Nicomedes, at 


* A small island in the Saronic Gulf, between iEgina and the coast of Argolis. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


155 


Tan'agra. Both sides fought with equal bravery and skill, and the 
victory was undecided until the Thessalian cavalry deserted 

^ ^ x5» v# 457» 

to the Spartans. The Athenians and their allies still held 
out for some hours, but when the contest ended with the daylight, 
the victory remained with their adversaries. Nicomedes reaped no other 
fruit from his victory than a safe return home, but Thebes gained from it 
an increase of power over the cities of Boeotia. 

147. Battle of QEno / phyta. The Athenians were only spurred to 
fresh exertions. The brave Myronides entered Boeotia two „ ^ . 
months after the battle of Tanagra, and gained at CEno- 

phyta one of the most decisive victories ever achieved by Greeks. The 
walls of Tanagra were leveled with the ground. Pliocis, Locris, and all 
Boeotia, except Thebes, were brought into alliance with Athens. These 
alliances were rendered effective by the establishment of free govern¬ 
ments in all the towns, which, for self-preservation, must always range 
themselves on the side of Athens; so that Myronides could boast that 
he had not only subdued enemies, but filled central Greece with garrisons 
of friends. 

148. Soon after the completion of the Long Walls, in 456, the island 
of JEgina submitted at last to Athens. Her shipping was surrendered, 
her walls destroyed, and the life-long rival became a tributary and subject. 
A fleet of fifty Athenian vessels, commanded by ToFmides, cruised around 
the Peloponnesus; burned Gyth / ium, a port of Sparta; captured Chalcis, 
in iEtolia, which belonged to Corinth, and defeated the 
Sicyonians on their own coast. Returning through the 
Corinthian Gulf, they captured NaupacTus, in western Locris, and all 
the cities of Cephallenia. 

In the same year, the tenth of its siege, Ithome surrendered to the 
Spartans. So long and brave a defense won the respect even of bitter 
enemies. The Helots were reduced again to slavery, but the Messenians 
were permitted to depart in safety to Naupactus, which Tolmides presented 
them from the fruits of his victories. 

149. In Egypt, the resistance of the Athenians to the Persians ended 
the same year, but not until after long and desperate adventures. When 
the citadel of Memphis was relieved by a Persian force, the Greeks with¬ 
drew to ProsopPtis, an island in the Nile around which their ships lay 
anchored. The Persians following, drained the channel, and thus left the 
ships on dry land. The Egyptian allies yielded, on this loss of their most 
effective force; but the Athenians, after burning the stranded vessels, re¬ 
tired into the town of Byblus, resolved to hold out to the last. The siege 

* continued eighteen months. At last the Persians marched across the dry 
bed of the channel and took the place by assault. Most of the Athenians 
fell; a few crossed the Libyan desert to Cvrene, and thus returned home. 


156 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


A fleet of fifty vessels, which had been sent to their relief, came too late, 
and was defeated by the Persians and Phoenicians. 

150. Other enterprises of the Athenians at this time were scarcely more 
successful, and Cimon, who had now been recalled from exile, used all his 
influence in favor of peace. A five years’ truce was made with Sparta in 
451 B. C. The Isle of Cyprus was the next object of Athenian ambition. 
Divided into nine petty states, it seemed to offer an easy conquest; and as 
the Persian king still claimed the sovereignty, the enterprise was but a 
renewal of ancient hostilities. Cimon sailed from Athens with a fleet of 
two hundred vessels; and in spite of the Persian force of three hundred 
ships which guarded the coast of Cyprus, he landed and gained possession 

^ ^ of many of its towns. While besieging Citium the great com¬ 

mander died. By his orders his death was concealed from 
his men, until they had gained another signal victory, both by land and 
■sea, in his name. The naval battle occurred off the Cyprian Salamis — a 
name of good omen to the Athenians. 

151. A slight incident about this time brought on renewed hostilities with 
Sparta. The city of Delphi, though on Phocian soil, claimed independence 
in the management of the temple and its treasures. The inhabitants were 
of Dorian descent, and were, therefore, closely united with the Spartans. 
Where the interests of Greece were divided, the great influence of the oracle 
was always on the side of the Doric as opposed to the Ionic race. The Athe- 

nians did not therefore object when their allies, the Phocians, 

£. (J. 448. 

seized the Delphian territory and assumed the care of the 
temple. The Spartans instantly undertook what they called a holy war, 
by which they expelled the Phocians and reinstated the Delphians in their 
former privileges. Delphi now declared itself a sovereign state; and to 
reward the Spartans for their intervention, conferred upon them the first 
privilege in consulting the oracle. This decree was inscribed upon a brazen 
wolf erected in the city. The Athenians could not willingly resign their 
share in a power which, through the superstition of the people, was often 
able to bestow victory in war and prosperity in peace. No sooner had the 
Spartans left the sacred city, than Pericles marched in and restored the 
temple to the Phocians. The brazen wolf was now made to tell another 
tale, and award precedence to the Athenians. 

152. At this signal of war, the exiles from various Boeotian cities, who 
had been driven out by the establishment of democratic governments, 
joined for a concerted movement. They seized Cluerone'a, Orchom'enus, 
and other towns, and restored the oligarchic governments which the Athe¬ 
nians had overthrown. These changes caused great excitement in Athens. 
The people clamored for immediate war; Pericles strongly opposed it: 
the season was unfavorable, and he considered that the honor of Athens 
was not immediately at stake. But the counsel of Tolmides prevailed, and 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


157 


with a thousand young Athenian volunteers, assisted by an army of allies, 
he marched into Boeotia. Chaeronea was soon subdued and garrisoned with 
Athenians. 


B. C. 447. 


B. C. 445, 


Flushed with its speedy victory, the army was returning home, when, in 
the vicinity of Coronaea, it fell into an ambush and suffered 
a most signal and memorable defeat. Tolmides himself, with 
the flower and pride of the Athenian soldiery, was left dead upon the field. 
A large number of prisoners were taken, and to recover these the govern¬ 
ment had to enter into a treaty with the new oligarchies, and withdraw its - 
forces from Boeotia. Locris and Phocis lost their free institutions and be¬ 
came allies of Sparta. The island of Euboea threw off the 
Athenian yoke, and other subject islands showed signs of dis¬ 
affection. At the same time, the five years’ truce with Sparta expired, and 
that state prepared with new zeal to avenge its humiliation at Delphi. 

153. Pericles, whose remembered warnings against the Boeotian war only 
heightened the respect and confidence of the people, now acted with energy 
and promptness. He landed in Euboea with a sufficient force to reduce that 
island, but had scarcely crossed the channel when he learned that the Me- 
garians were in revolt. Aided by allies from Sicyon, Epidaurus, and Cor¬ 
inth, they had put all the Athenian garrisons to the sword, except a few in 
the fortress of Nisaea, and all the Peloponnesian states had combined to send 
an army into Attica. To meet this greater danger, Pericles returned home. 
The Peloponnesian army soon appeared, under the young Spartan king, 
Plisto'anax; but instead of the decisive operations that were expected, it 
only plundered the western borders of Attica, and retired without striking a 
blow. Plistoanax and his guardian were accused, on their return, of 
having accepted bribes from the-Athenians; and as both fled the country r 
rather than meet the prosecution, we may presume that the charge was just. 
Returning to Euboea, Pericles reduced the island to complete subjection, 
and established a colony at Histisea. 

154. All parties now desired peace. A thirty years’ truce was concluded 
between Athens and Sparta, in which the former submitted B c 44 _^ 
to the loss of her empire on land. The foothold in Trcezene, 


the right to levy troops in Achaia, the possession of the Megarid, the pro¬ 
tectorate of free governments in central Greece, all were given up. But the 
losses of the war had fallen most heavily on the party which began it, while 
Pericles stood higher than ever in the esteem of his fellow-citizens. Thu¬ 
cydides,- a kinsman of Cimon, and his successor as leader of the aristocracy, 
was summoned to the ostracism, and when he rose to make his defense he 
had not a word to say. He was banished, and retired to Sparta, B. C. 444. 


* This exiled politician must not be confounded with Thucydides the great 
historian, who was living at the same time. 




158 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


155. Pericles now united all parties, and for the rest of his life held 
supreme control of affairs. The nobles respected him as one of their own 
order; the merchants and alien settlers were enriched by his protection 
of trade; the shippers and sailors, by his attention to maritime affairs; 
artisans and artists, by the public works he was incessantly carrying on; 
while the ears of all classes were charmed by his eloquence, and their eyes 
by the magnificent buildings with which he adorned the city. At this time 
was erected the Parthenon, or temple of Athena the Virgin, adorned by 
Phidias with the most beautiful sculptures, especially with the colossal 
statue of the goddess in ivory and gold, forty-seven feet in height. The 
Erechtheum, or ancient sanctuary of Athena Polias, was rebuilt; the Pro- 
pylse'a, of Pentelic marble, erected; and the Acropolis now began to be 
called the “ city of the gods.” 

156. Only three islands in the neighboring seas now maintained their 

independence, and of these the most important was Samos. 

i)« 0/. 440# t ill (* i* 

The Milesians, who had some cause oi complaint against the 
Samians, appealed to the arbitration of Athens, and were joined by a party 
in Samos itself which was opposed to the oligarchy. The Athenians readily 
assumed the judgment of the case, and as Samos refused their arbitration, 
resolved to conquer the island. Pericles with a fleet proceeded to Samos, 
revolutionized the government, and brought away hostages from the most 
powerful families. But no sooner was he departed than some of the de¬ 
posed party returned by night, overpowered the Athenian garrison, and 
restored the oligarchy. They gained possession of their hostages, who 
had been deposited on the Isle of Lemnos, and being joined by Byzantium, 
declared open war against Athens. 

157. When the news of this event reached Athens, a fleet of sixty vessels 
was immediately sent forth, Pericles being one of the ten commanders. 
Several battles were fought by sea, and the Samians were at length driven 
within the walls of their capital, where they endured a nine months’ siege. 
When at last they were forced to yield, they were compelled to destroy 
their fortifications, surrender their fleet, give hostages for their future 
conduct, and pay the expenses of the war. The Byzantines submitted at 
the same time. Athens was completely triumphant; but the terror she 
had inspired was mixed with jealousy. During the revolt, the rival states 
had seriously discussed the question of aiding the rebels; and it was 
decided in the negative mainly by the influence of Corinth, which, though 
no friend to Athens, feared that the precedent might be remembered in 
case of a revolt of her own colonies. 

158. Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, had itself founded, on the Illyrian 

coast, the city of Epidamnus. This city, attacked by the 

Cy* 4o5. 

Illyrians, led by some of her own exiled nobles, sent to 
Corcyra for aid, but was refused, as the exiles belonged to the party in 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


159 


power in the mother city. The Epidamnians now resorted to Corinth, 
which undertook their defense with great energy. Coreyra, alarmed in 
turn, applied to Athens for assistance. Opinions were divided in the 
assembly, but that of Pericles prevailed, who urged that war could not 
in any case be long delayed, and that it was more prudent to make it in 
alliance with Corcyra, whose fleet was, next to that of Athens, the most 
powerful in Greece, than to be driven at last to fight at a disadvantage. 

Considering, however, that Corinth, as an ally of Sparta, was included 
in the thirty years’ truce, it was resolved to make only a defensive alliance 
with Corcyra; i. e., to render assistance in case its territories should be in¬ 
vaded, but not to take part in any aggressive action. A naval battle soon 
occurred off the coast of Epirus, in which the Corinthians were the victors, 
and prepared to effect a landing in Corcyra. Ten Athenian vessels were 
present, under the command of Lacedsemonius, son of Cimon, and they 
were now, by the letter of their agreement, free to engage. But suddenly, 
after the signal of battle had been given, the Corinthians drew back and 
stood away for the coast of Epirus. Twenty Athenian ships had appeared 
in the distance, which they imagined to be the vanguard of a large fleet. 
Though this was a mistake, it had the effect of preventing further hostili¬ 
ties, and the Corinthians returned home with their prisoners. 

159. Incensed at the interference of Athens, the Corinthians sought 
revenge by uniting with Prince Perdic'cas of Macedonia, to B ^ 
stir up revolts among the Athenian tributaries in the Chal- 
cidic peninsulas. A battle ensued at Olynthus, in which the Athenians 
were victorious over the Corinthian general, and blockaded him in Poti- 
dsea, where he had taken refuge. 

A congress of the Peloponnesian states was held at Sparta, and com¬ 
plaints from many quarters were uttered against Athens. The iEginetans 
deplored the loss of their independence; the Megarians, the crippling of 
their trade; the Corinthians, that they were overshadowed by the towering 
ambition of their powerful neighbor. At the same time, the Corinthians 
contrasted the restless activity of Athens with the selfish inertness of 
Sparta, and threatened that if the latter still delayed to do her duty by 
the League, they would seek a more efficient ally. 

The envoys having departed, Sparta decided to undertake the war. 
Before proceeding to actual hostilities, it was thought best to send mes¬ 
sengers to Athens, demanding, among other things, that she should “ expel 
the accursed” from her presence — referring to Pericles, whose race they 
chose to consider as still tainted with sacrilege. But Pericles replied that 
the Spartans themselves had heavy accounts to settle on the score of sacri¬ 
lege, not only for starving Pausanias in the sanctuary of Athena, but for 
dragging away and murdering the Helots who had taken refuge, during 
the late revolt, in the temple of Posidon. The other demands were rejected, 


160 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


though with more hesitation. They concerned the independence of Megara 
and iEgina, and, generally, the abdication by Athens of her position as head 
of the League. The Athenians declared that they would refrain from com¬ 
mencing hostilities, and would make just satisfaction for any infringement 
on their part of the thirty years’ truce; but that they were ready to meet 
force with force. 

160. War in Bceotia. While both parties hesitated to begin the war, 
the Thebans precipitated matters by a treacherous attack 
upon the city of Plataea. This city, instead of joining the 
Boeotian League, had been in friendly alliance with Athens, and was 
hence regarded with great jealousy by the Thebans. A small oligarchical 
party in Platcea favored the Thebans, and it was NauclPdes, the head of 
this party, who, at dead of night, admitted three hundred of them into the 
town. The Platseans were roused from sleep to find their enemies en¬ 
camped in their market-place; but though scattered and betrayed, they 
did not yield. They secretly communicated with each other by breaking 
through the walls of their houses; and having thus formed a plan for 
defense, fell upon the enemy a little before daybreak. 

The Thebans were exhausted by marching all night in the rain; they 
were entangled in the narrow, crooked streets of the tow r n; and even 
women and children fought against them by hurling tiles from the roofs. 
The reinforcement which they expected was delayed, and before it arrived 
the three hundred were either slain or captured. The Thebans without 
the walls now seized whatever persons and property they could lay their 
hands on, as security for the release of the prisoners. The Platseans sent 
a herald to declare that the captives would be immediately put to death, 
unless the ravages should cease; but that, if the Thebans would retire, 
they should be given up. The marauders withdrew, but the Platseans, 
instead of keeping their word, gathered their movable property into the 
town, and then put all their prisoners to death. Fleet-footed messengers 
had already been sent to Athens with the news. They returned with 
orders to the Platseans to do nothing of importance without the advice of 
the Athenians. It was too late, however, to save the lives of the prisoners 
or the honor of their captors. 

E-ECAPITIJLATIOIT. 

In the First Peloponnesian War (B. C. 460-457), Athens was allied with Megara; 
Sparta and iEgina, with Corinth. At the same time, the Athenians aided a revolt 
of Egypt against Persia, and built long walls to connect their city with its ports. 
Sparta, interfering in a war between Phocis and Doris, defeated the Athenians 
at Tanagra; but the latter gained a more decisive victory at CEnophyta, which 
brought Phocis, Locris, and all Boeotia, except Thebes, into their alliance. iEgina 
was conquered and made tributary to Athens. Ithome surrendered to Sparta ; 
the Helots were re-enslaved and the Messenians exiled. In a new war, occa- 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


161 


sioned by the interference of Sparta at Delphi, the Athenians, under Tolmides, 
gained some advantages, but were disastrously defeated at Coronsea, with great 
loss of influence in central Greece. Assailed at once by rebellions in Euboea and 
Megaris, and by a Spartan invasion, Pericles defeated the latter by bribes and 
the former by arms. The peace which followed was concluded on terms unfa¬ 
vorable to Athens. Being called to aid a popular revolution in Samos, the 
Athenians captured its chief city and re-established their own influence. Epi- 
damnus, in war with her mother city, was aided by Corinth; while Athens, 
taking the part of Corcyra, defeated the Corinthians at Olyntlnis, and besieged 
them two years in Potidsea. A more general war was hastened by the mutual 
treachery of the Thebans and Platceans. 


The Peloponnesian War. 


B. C. 431-404. 


B. C. 431. 


101. All Greece now prepared for war — a war of twenty-seven years, 
which was to be marked by more calamities and horrors 
than Hellas had ever yet endured. On the side of Sparta 
fought all Peloponnesus, except Argos and Acliaia, together with Megara, 
Bceotia, Phocis, Opuntian Locris, Ambracia, Leucadia, and Anactoria. 
Athens had for allies, on the mainland, Thessaly and Acarnania, with 
the cities of Naupactus and Platsea. There were also her tributaries on 
the coast of Thrace and Asia Minor, and on the Cyclades, beside her 
island allies, Chios, Lesbos, Corcyra, Zacynthus, and, later, Cephallenia. 

16*2. Archidamus, king of Sparta, having collected his allies at the 
isthmus, marched into the Attic territory about the middle 
of June. The inhabitants quitted their fields, and with all 
the property they could remove, took refuge within Athens and the Piraeus. 
Every corner and recess of the city walls became a dwelling. In the mar¬ 
ket-place, the public squares, ancfthe precincts of the temples, temporary 
habitations arose, and the poorer sort found shelter in tents, huts, and even 
casks, placed against the Long Walls. Among this crowded population, 
violent debates arose concerning the conduct of the war. Great indigna¬ 
tion was felt against Pericles for the inaction of the army, while Archida¬ 
mus was ravaging the fields almost under their eyes. 

But the leader had resolved to carry the war out of Attica. For this 
purpose a combined fleet of Athenians and Corcyrseans sailed around the 
Peloponnesus, disembarking troops at various points to ravage the country. 
Two Corinthian settlements in Acarnania were captured, and the island 
of Cephallenia transferred its allegiance from Sparta to Athens. The TEgi~ 
netans were expelled, and their island occupied by Athenian settlers. 
Archidamus, after five or six weeks, marched out of Attica and disbanded 
his army. The Athenians then put their forces in motion to punish the 
Megarians, whom they considered as revolted subjects. They laid waste 
the whole territory to the gates of the capital, and the devastations were 
renewed every year while the war continued. 

A. H.—11. 


162 


ANCIENT HISTORY . 


B. C. 430. 


163. The next spring, with a new Spartan invasion, brought a still 
greater calamity to the Athenians. The plague, originating 
in Ethiopia, had traveled along the Asiatic coasts of the 

Mediterranean until it reached their city, where the crowded condition of 
the people made it spread with frightful rapidity. A terror seized the 
populace, some of whom believed that their enemies had poisoned the 
wells, while a greater number ascribed the pestilence to the wrath of 
Apollo, who was the especial protector of the Dorian race. 

164. In their passion of despair the Athenians turned against Pericles, 
whose cautious policy they considered as the cause of their misfortunes. 
Though still refusing battle, which, with the reduced numbers and ex¬ 
hausted spirit of the army, would have been almost certain defeat, he 
actively pushed his operations against the Peloponnesus. To relieve the 
crowded city of its mischievous elements, he fitted out a fleet and led it 
in person to ravage the enemy’s coasts. On his return he found the oppo¬ 
sition stronger than ever, and an embassy had even been sent to Sparta to 
sue for peace. The suit had been contemptuously rejected, and the rage 
of the Athenians was only increased. Pericles persuaded them to perse¬ 
vere in the war, but his eloquence was unavailing to silence the fury of his 
personal enemies. By the influence of Cleon, his chief opponent, he was 
even accused of embezzling the public funds, and was fined to a large 
amount. 

165. But the life and adversities of the great statesman were alike near 

their end. The plague had robbed him of liis nearest rela- 
B. C. 429. . / 

tives. A lingering fever, following an attack of the pesti¬ 
lence, terminated his life. As he lay, seemingly unconscious, the friends 
surrounding his death-bed were rehearsing his great deeds, when the dying 
man interrupted them, saying, “All that you are praising was either the 
result of good fortune, or, in any case, common to me with many other 
leaders. What I chiefly pride myself upon is, that no Athenian has ever 
mourned on my account.” 

166. The second Lacedaemonian foray was more destructive than the 

first, for the ravages extended over all Attica, even to the 

IS. C. 430. 

silver mines of Laurium. The fleet of the Peloponnesians 
destroyed the fisheries and commerce of Athens, and devastated the island 
of Zacynthus. During the following winter Potidaea surrendered, after a 
blockade of two years, and was occupied by a thousand Athenian colo¬ 
nists. 

The third campaign of the Spartans was directed against Plataea. On 
the approach of Archidamus, the Plataeans sent a solemn re- 
monstrance, reminding him of the oath which Pausanias had 
sworn on the evening of their great battle, making Platsea forever sacred 
from invasion. The king replied that the Plaheans, too, were bound by 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


163 


oath to labor for the independence of every Grecian state. He reminded 
them of their heinous crime in the slaughter of the Theban prisoners, but 
promised that, if they would abandon the cause of Athens and remain 
neutral during the war, their privileges should be respected. The Platse- 
ans refused to forsake their ancient ally, and the siege of their city 
began. 

167. The garrison which thus defied the whole Peloponnesian army, 
consisted of only 480 men, but they made up in energy 

what they lacked in numbers. Archidamus began by shut¬ 
ting up every outlet of the town with a palisade of wood, then erected 
against this a mound of earth and stone, forming an inclined plane, up 
which his troops could march. The Plataeans undermined the mound, 
which fell in, and thus defeated seventy days’ work of the whole besieging 
army. They also built a new wall within the old one, so that, if this were 
taken, the Spartans would still be no nearer the possession of the city. 

Seeing that the will of the Plataeans could only be subdued by famine, 
the allies now turned the siege into a blockade. They surrounded the 
city with a double wall, and roofed the intervening space, so as to afford 
shelter to the soldiers on duty. The Plataeans thus endured a complete 
separation from the outer world for two years. Provisions began to fail; 
and, in the second year, nearly half the garrison made their escape, by 
climbing over the barracks and fortifications of their besiegers in the rain 
and darkness of a December night. The Plataeans, though thus reduced in 
numbers, came at length to absolute starvation. A herald now appeared 
from the Spartan commander, requiring their submission, but promising that 
only the guilty should be punished. They yielded. When brought before 
the five Spartan judges, every man was found guilty and led to execution. 
The town and territory of Plataea were made over to the Thebans, who 
destroyed all private dwellings, and with the materials erected a huge 
barrack, to afford shelter to visitors, and dwellings to the serfs who culti¬ 
vated the land. The city of Plataea was blotted out from the map of 
Greece. 

168. The Athenians, with their ally SitaPces, a Thracian chief, were 
warring in the north with little success. Sitalces, with an irregular but 
powerful host of 150,000 Thracians, invaded Macedonia with the intention 
of dethroning Perdiccas. The Macedonians, unable to meet him in the 
open field, withdrew into their fortresses, and Sitalces, who had no means 
for conducting sieges, retired after thirty days. Phor'mio, an Athenian 
captain, gained two victories, meanwhile, in the Corinthian 

-D. v» 

Gulf, over a vastly superior number of Spartans. In the first 
engagement he had but twenty ships, to the Spartan forty-seven; in the 
second, without reinforcements, he met a fresh Spartan fleet of seventy- 
seven sail. 


iNCIENT HISTORY. 


The fourth year of the war was marked by the revolt of Mytilene, 

^ ^ capital of Lesbos. Envoys were sent to Sparta to implore 
assistance, which was willingly granted, and the Mytilenians 
were received into the Peloponnesian League. 

169. In the spring of 427, the Spartan fleet advanced to Mytilene, but 
it arrived only to find the town in the possession of the Athenians. 
Nearly reduced by famine, the governor, by the advice of a Spartan envoy, 
had armed all the men of the lower classes for a last desperate sortie, 
The result was contrary to his expectations. The mass of the Mytilenian 
people preferred the Athenian supremacy to that of their own oligarchic 
government. Emboldened by their arms, they declared that they would 
treat directly with the Athenians, unless all their demands were granted. 
The governor had no choice but to open negotiations himself. The city 
was surrendered, and the fate of its inhabitants was left to be decided by 
the popular assembly in Athens, whither the ring-leaders of the revolt 
were sent. 

170. A thousand Athenians assembled in the Agora to decide the fate 
of their prisoners. Salse'thus, the Spartan envoy, was instantly put to 
death. With regard to the rest, a spirited debate ensued. Cleon the 
tanner, the former opponent of Pericles, took a prominent part; and in 
spite of more humane and moderate counsels, actually succeeded in carry¬ 
ing his brutal proposition, to put to the sword all the men of Mytilene, 
and sell the women and children into slavery. Iniquitous as such an 
order would be in any case, it was the more so in this, because the greater 
number of the Mytilenians were friendly to Athens, while the revolt had 
been the act of the oligarchy, who were enemies of the people. So 
strong had been the opposition, that Cleon feared a reversal of the sen¬ 
tence, and therefore had a galley instantly dispatched to Lesbos, with 
orders for its immediate execution. 

His apprehensions were well founded. A single night’s reflection filled 
the better sort of Athenians with horror at the inhuman decision into 
which they had been hurried. They demanded a new assembly to re¬ 
consider the question; and though this was contrary to law, the strategi 
consented and convened the citizens. In the second day’s debate the 
atrocious decree was rescinded. Every nerve was now strained to enable 
the mercy-bearing barque to overtake the messengers of death, who were 
a whole day’s journey in advance. The strongest oarsmen were selected, 
and urged to their greatest exertion by the promise of large rewards if 
they should arrive in time. Their food was given them while they plied 
the oar, and sleep was allowed them only in short intervals, and by 
turns. The weather proved favorable, and they arrived just as Paches, 
who had received the first dispatch, was preparing for its execution. 
The Mytilenians were saved, but the walls of their city were leveled. 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


165 


and its fleet surrendered to the Athenians. The island of Lesbos, with 
the exception of Methyn/na, which had refused all share in the revolt, 
was divided into 3,000 parts, of which 300 were devoted to the gods, 
and the rest assigned by lot to Athenian settlers. The prisoners at 
Athens were tried for their share in the conspiracy, and put to death. 

171. The Corcyrean prisoners who had been carried to Corinth in 
432, were now sent home, in the hope that their account 

B. C. 42/• 

of the generous treatment they had received would induce 
their countrymen to withdraw from the Athenian alliance. They joined 
with the oligarchical faction to effect a revolution in Corcyra, killed the 
chiefs of the popular party, gained possession of the harbor, the arsenal, 
and the market-place, and thus, by overawing the people, obtained a vote 
in the assembly to maintain in future a strict neutrality. The people, 
however, fortified .themselves in the higher parts of the town, and called 
to their aid the serfs from the interior of the island, to whom they 
promised freedom. 

The oligarchists set fire to the town, but while it was burning a small 
Athenian squadron arrived from Naupactus, and its commander attempted, 
with great wisdom, to make peace between the contending parties. He 
had to all appearance effected this design, when a Peloponnesian fleet, 
more than four times as numerous as his own, appeared, under the com¬ 
mand of AlcPdas. The Athenians withdrew without loss, and Alcidas 
had Corcyra for the moment in his power; but with his usual want of 
promptness, he spent a day in ravaging the island, and, at night, beacon 
fires on Leucas announced the approach of an Athenian fleet outnum¬ 
bering his own. Alcidas drew off before daybreak, leaving the oligarchists 
in the city to their fate. The next seven days were a reign of terror in 
Corcyra. The popular party, protected by the presence of the Athenians, 
abandoned itself to revenge. Civil hatred was stronger than natural 
affection. A father slew his own son ; brothers had no pity for brothers. 
The aristocratic party was nearly exterminated; but five hundred escaped, 
and fortified themselves on Mount Isto'ne, near the capital. 

172. The sixth year of the war opened with floods and earthquakes, 
which seemed an echo in nature of the moral convulsions ^ ^ 

of Greece. The plague was raging again at Athens. To 
appease the wrath of Apollo, a solemn purification of the isle of Delos, 
his birth-place, was performed in the autumn. All bodies that had been 
buried there were removed to a neighboring island, and the Delian fes¬ 
tival was revived with increased magnificence. The usual Spartan inva¬ 
sion of Attica had been prevented this year, either by awe of the supposed 
wrath of the gods, or by fear of the plague; but in the seventh year of 
the war (B. C. 425), their king, Agis, again crossed the borders and rav¬ 
aged the country. He was recalled, after fifteen days, by the news that 


166 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the Athenians had established a military station on the coast of Mes- 
senia. 

173. A fleet bound for Sicily, under Eurymedon and Sophocles, had 
been delayed for a time by a storm, near the harbor of Pylos. The com¬ 
manders selected this place for a settlement of Messenians'from Naupactus, 
who would thus be able to communicate with their Helot kinsmen, and 
harass the Spartans. Demosthenes was left with five ships and two hun¬ 
dred soldiers, who were increased, by a reinforcement of Messenians, to a 
thousand men. The wrath of the Spartans was only equaled by their 
alarm at this infringement of their territory. Their fleet was instantly 
ordered from Corcyra, while Agis, with his army, marched from Attica. 
The long and narrow island of Sphacte / ria, which covered the entrance to 
the Bay of Pylos, was occupied by ThrasymePidas, the Spartan, while liis 
ships were sheltered in the basin which it inclosed. Demosthenes, while 
awaiting reinforcements, had to meet a vastly superior number with his 
handful of men. The attack from the sea was led by Bras'idas, one of the 
greatest captains whom Sparta ever produced. He fought on the prow of 
the foremost vessel, urging his men forward by looks and words; but he 
was severely wounded, and the battle ended with no advantage to the 
Spartans. It was renewed the second day with no better success, and the 
Athenians erected a trophy, which they ornamented with the shield of 
Brasidas. 

The arrival of the Athenian fleet was followed by a severe and still 

more decisive battle. The victorious Athenians proceeded 
B. C. 425. ... . 7 

to blockade Sphacteria, which contained the choicest Pel¬ 
oponnesian troops. So serious was the crisis, that the epliors saw no 
escape except to sue for peace. An armistice was agreed upon, and the 
better spirits on both sides began to hope for a termination of the war. 
But the foolish vanity of Cleon and his party demanded the most extrav¬ 
agant terms, and the voice of reason was drowned. Hostilities re-com¬ 
menced, with equal vexation to both parties. Demosthenes, fearing that 
the storms of winter would interrupt his blockade, resolved to make an 
attack upon the island, and sent to Athens explaining his position and 
demanding reinforcements. The report was disheartening to the Assembly, 
which now began to accuse Cleon for having persuaded it to let slip the 
occasion for an honorable peace. Cleon retorted by accusing the officers 
of cowardice and incapacity, and declared that, if he were general, he 
would take Sphacteria at once! At this boast of the tanner, the whole 
assembly broke out into laughter, and cries, “Why don’t you go, then?” 
were heard on all sides. The lively spirits of the Athenians recovered with 
a bound from their unusual depression, and the mere joke soon grew into 
a purpose. Cleon tried to draw back, but the Assembly insisted. At last 
he engaged, with a certain number of auxiliaries added to the troops al- 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


167 


ready at Pylos, to take the island in twenty days, and either kill all the 
Spartans upon it, or bring them in chains to Athens. 

174. Singular as were the circumstances of Cleon’s commission, his 
success was equally remarkable. Demosthenes had made all ready for the 
attack ; and to his prudence, aided by the accidental burning of the woods 
on Sphacteria, rather than to the generalship of Cleon, the victory was due. 
The Athenians, landing before daybreak, overpowered the guard at the 
southern end of the island, and then drew up in order of battle, sending 
out parties of skirmishers to provoke the enemy to a combat. The Spartan 
general, blinded by the light ashes raised by the march of his men, ad¬ 
vanced, with some difficulty, over the half-burnt stumps of the trees. He 
was greatly outnumbered by his assailants, who harassed him from a dis¬ 
tance with arrows, and forced him at length to retire to the extremity of 
the island. Here the Spartans fought again with their accustomed bravery; 
but a party of Messenians, who had clambered over some crags usually 
deemed inaccessible, appeared upon the heights above, and decided the 
fate of the battle. All the surviving Spartans surrendered, and Cleon and 
Demosthenes, setting out immediately after the battle, arrived at Athens 
with their prisoners within the twenty days. This victory was one of the 
most important that the Athenians had gained. The harbor of Pylos was 
strongly fortified and garrisoned with Messenian troops, for a base of oper¬ 
ations against Laconia. 

175. At the beginning of the eighth year the Athenians were every¬ 
where triumphant, and the Spartans, humbled and distressed, 

. i n C. 424. 

had repeatedly asked for peace. Nicias, in the early part of 

the year, conquered the island of Cythera, and placed garrisons in its two 
chief towns, which were a contmual defiance of the Lacedaemonians. He 
then ravaged the coasts of Laconia, and captured, among other places, the 
town of Thyr'ea, where the ^Eginetans, after their expulsion from their 
own island, had been permitted to settle. Those of the original exiles who 
survived were carried to Athens and put to death. The brutalizing influ¬ 
ences of war were more apparent every year, and these cold-blooded mas¬ 
sacres had become almost of common occurrence. 

The Spartans, about the same time, alarmed by the nearness of the 
Messenian garrisons of Pylos and Cythera, gave notice that those Helots 
who had distinguished themselves by their faithful services during the 
war, should be set at liberty. A large number of the bravest and ablest 
appeared to claim the promise. Two thousand of these were selected as 
worthy of emancipation, crowned with garlands, and dignified with high 
religious honors. But in a lew days they had all disappeared, by means 
known only to the Spartan ephors—men unmoved, either by honor or 
pity, from their narrow regard to the supposed interest of the state. 

1 76. The success of the Athenians did not entirely desert them in their 


168 


ANCIEST HIST OR Y. 


Megarian expedition, but their attempt upon Boeotia resulted only in dis¬ 
aster. The chief movement was executed by Hippocrates, who led an 
army of more than 32,000 soldiers across the Boeotian frontier to Delium, 
a place strongly situated near Tanagra, among the cliffs of the eastern 
coast. Here he fortified the temple of Apollo, and placing a garrison in 
the works, set out for home. The Boeotians had collected a large army at 

Tanagra, which now moved to intercept the Athenians upon 
B C 424 b ’ 

the heights of Delium. The battle commenced late in the 
day. The Athenian right was at first successful, but their left was borne 
down by the Theban phalanx. In their ranks were Socrates, the philoso¬ 
pher, and his pupils, AlcibFades and Xenophon, all destined to the highest 
fame in Grecian history. At length the Boeotian cavalry appeared, and 
decided the fortunes of the day. The Athenians fled in all directions, and 
only the fill of night prevented their complete destruction. Delium was 
taken by siege after seventeen days. 

177. Soon after these disasters, the Athenians lost all their dominion in 
Thrace. Brasidas had led a small but well chosen army to the aid of Per- 
diccas and the Chalcidian towns. The bravery and integrity of this great 
general led many of the allies of Athens to forsake her party, and when he 
suddenly appeared before Amphipolis, that city surrendered with scarcely 
an attempt at resistance. Thucydides,* the historian, was general in that 
region. The Athenian party in Amphipolis sent to him for aid, but Iks 
arrived too late. For this failure, whether proceeding from necessity or 
carelessness, the general was sentenced to banishment, and spent his next 
twenty years in exile, during which he contributed more by his literary 
work to the glory of Greece, than he would probably have done in military 
command. Brasidas proceeded to the easternmost of the three Chalcidian 
peninsulas, and received the submission of nearly all the towns. 

The Athenians were now so disheartened by their losses, that they, in 
turn, began to propose peace; and the Spartans, anxious for the return of 
their noble youths who were prisoners in Athens, were equally desirous of 
a treaty. To this end a year’s truce was agreed upon, in 423, to afford 
time for permanent negotiations. Unhappily, two days after the beginning 
of the truce, Sciohie revolted from the Athenians, who demanded its resti¬ 
tution. The Spartans refused, and the whole year was suffered to pass 
away without any further efforts toward peace. At its expiration, Cleon 
advanced into Thrace with a fleet and army. He took the towns of To- 
ro'ne and Galepsus, and was proceeding against Amphipolis, when a battle 
ensued which ended at once his life and his assumption of power. Brasidas, 
too, was mortally wounded, but he lived long enough to know that he was 
victorious. 


* See note. p. 157, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


169 


178. Peace of Nicias. The two great obstacles to peace were now 
removed, and, in the spring of 421, a treaty for fifty years, commonly 
called the “ Peace of Nicias,” was concluded between Athens and Sparta. 
Some allies of the latter complained that Sparta had sacrificed their inter¬ 
ests to her own, and formed a new league, with Argos for their head. 
Athens made a new alliance for a hundred years with Argos, Elis, and 
Mantine'a, B. C. 420. 


EECAPITULATIOIT. 

In the greater Peloponnesian war (B. C. 431-404), nearly all central and southern 
Greece were allied with Sparta; most of the maritime states, with Athens. 
Within the latter city were crowded most of the people of Attica, in terror of 
the Spartan invasions. Great numbers died of the plague; its most illustrious 
victim was Pericles. A two years’ blockade of Platsea, by the Spartans, ended 
with the annihilation of the city. The revolt of Lesbos was subdued by Athens, 
and the Mytilenians were condemned to death, but the revengeful sentence was 
reversed. A revolution in Corcyra resulted in a seven days’ massacre of the 
aristocratic party. A solemn purification of Delos was performed, to mitigate 
the plague at Athens. The Athenians established a colony at Pylos, to harass 
Laconia, and were victors in several naval battles. Cleon, the tanner, with 
Demosthenes, the general, conquered the Spartans at Sphacteria. Nicias cap- 
tux*ed Cythera, and garrisoned its towns. The brutal character of the war was 
shown in the massacre of exiled iEginetans at Athens, and of two thousand 
Helots at Sparta. The disastrous battle of Delium ended the invasion of Bceotia 
by the Athenians, who lost, at the same time, all their possessions in Thrace. 
The Peace of Nicias was concluded B. C. 421, and Athens made a new league 
with some former allies of Sparta. 

The Sicilian Expedition. 

179. From two previous celebrations of the Olympic Games the Athe¬ 
nians had been excluded, but, in the summer of this year, B c m 

the Elean heralds appeared again to invite their attendance. 

Those who looked to see Athens poverty-stricken, from her many losses, 
were surprised at the magnificence of her delegates, who made the most 
costly display in all the processions. Alcibiades entered on the lists seven 
four-horse chariots, and received two olive crowns in the laces. This young 
man was among the ablest citizens that Athens evei possessed. His genius, 
bravery, and quickness in emergencies might have made him her gieatest 
benefactor; but, through his unregulated ambition and utter lack ot con¬ 
science, he became the cause of her greatest calamities. 

180. War soon broke out between the Spartans and the Argives, in 
which the Spartan king, Agis, won the important battle ot Mantinea, 
B. C. 418. The oligarchical party, gaining power at Argos, cast oft' the 
alliance with Athens, and made a treaty with Sparta. But the nobles 
abused their power in brutal outrages upon the people, who effected 
another revolution and obtained possession of the city. By their lequest, 
Alcibiades came to their aid with a fleet and army. 1 hough the Spartans 


170 


A SCI ENT HISTORY. 

and Athenians were nominally at peace, the garrison of Pylos was still 
committing depredations in Laconia, and Spartan privateers were seriously 
injuring Athenian commerce. 

181. About this time, an embassy from Sicily besought the aid of the- 
Athenians for the city ot Egesta. It was involved in a contest with it.** 
neighbor, Selinus, which had obtained help from Syracuse. The “ war of 
races” had, indeed, broken out twelve years before in Sicily, and the Athe¬ 
nians had more than once sent aid to the Ionian cities, Leonti ni and 
Camari'na, against their Dorian neighbors, who had joined the 1 elopon- 
nesian League. Alcibiades threw his whole influence into the cause of 
Egesta, hoping at once to improve his wasted fortunes with Sicilian spoils, 
and gratify his ambition with the glory of conquest. He even hoped, 
beside making Athens supreme over all the Hellenic colonies, to conquer 
the empire of Carthage, in the western Mediterranean. 

Nicias and all the moderate party opposed the enterprise. They only 
prevailed in having an embassy sent to Egesta, to ascertain it its people 
were really able to fulfill their promise of furnishing funds for the war. 
The envoys were completely outwitted. In the temple ot Aphrodite they 
saw a magnificent display of vessels which appeared to be solid gold, but 
were really silver-gilt. They were feasted at the houses of citizens, and 
were surprised by the profusion of gold and silver plate which adorned 
their sideboards, not suspecting that the same articles were passing from 
house to house, and doing repeated service in their entertainment. Sixty 
talents of silver were paid as a first installment, and the commissioners 
went home with glowing accounts of Egestan wealth. 

182. All doubt disappeared from most minds in Athens, and Nicias, 

Alcibiades, and Lamachus were appointed to lead an expedition to Sicily. 

The zeal of the Athenians knew no bounds. Young and old, rich and 

poor, alike demanded a share in the great expedition. The generals had 

difficulty in selecting from the throng of volunteers. The 
413. t ^ t 

fleet was on the point of sailing, when a mysterious event 

threw the excited multitude into consternation. The Hermce , which stood 
before every door in Athens, before every temple or gymnasium, and 
in every public square, were found one morning reduced to shapeless 
masses of stone. Not one escaped. The people, in an agony of supersti¬ 
tious horror, demanded the detection and punishment of the criminal. 
Suspicion fell upon Alcibiades, because he was known to have burlesqued 
the Eleusinian mysteries in a drunken frolic, and was supposed to be 
capable of any sacrilege. He indignantly denied his guilt, and demanded 
an immediate examination. But his enemies contrived to have it post¬ 
poned until his return, thus sending him out under the burden of an un 
proved charge, which might be revived for his condemnation in case of 
disaster. 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


171 


183. On the day appointed for the sailing of the armament, nearly the 
whole population of Athens accompanied the soldiers on their march at 
day-break to Pirseus. AVlien all were on board, the truippet commanded 
silence, and the voice of the herald, in unison with that of the people, 
was heard in prayer. The paean was then sung, while the officer at the 
prow of each vessel poured a libation from a golden goblet into the sea. 
At a given signal, the entire fleet slipped its cables and started at the 
utmost speed, each crew striving to be first at iEgina. 

184. The whole armament of Athenians and allies mustered at Coreyra 
in July, 415. It numbered 136 vessels of war and 500 transports, carrying 
6,300 soldiers, beside artisans and a large provision of food and arms. 
When the fleet approached the coast of Italy, three fast-sailing triremes 
were sent to notify the Egestaeans of its arrival, and to learn their present 
condition. These rejoined the fleet at Rhegium, with the unwelcome 
report that the wealth of Egesta was wholly fictitious, and that thirty 
talents more were the extent of the aid to be expected. The three admirals 
were now divided in opinion. Nicias was for sailing at once to Selinus, 
making the best terms possible, and then returning home. Alcibiades 
proposed to seek new allies among the Greek cities, and with their aid to 
attack both Selinus and Syracuse. Lamachus urged an immediate attack 
upon the latter city, the greatest and wealthiest on the island. This 
counsel was at once the boldest and the safest, for the Syracusans were 
unprepared for defense, and their surrender would have decided the fate 
of the island; but, unhappily, Lamachus was neither rich nor influential. 
His plan was disregarded, and that of Alcibiades adopted. 

185. The fleet, sailing southward^ reconnoitered the defenses of Syracuse, 
and took possession of Catana, which became its headquarters. At this 
point, Alcibiades received from Athens a decree of the Assembly, requiring 
his return for trial. A judicial inquiry had acquitted him of the mutila¬ 
tion of the Hermse, but he was still charged with profaning the Eleusinian 
Mysteries, by representing them at his own house for the entertainment of 
his friends. This was an unpardonable crime, and those noble families 
which had derived from their heroic or divine ancestors an especial 
right to officiate in the ceremonies, felt themselves grossly insulted. The 
public trireme which brought the summons to Alcibiades, was under 
special orders not to arrest him, but to suffer him to return in his own 
vessel. The wily general availed himself of this courtesy to effect his 
escape. Landing at Thurii, he eluded his pursuers, and the messengers 
returned to Athens without him. Here in his absence he was condemned 
to death, his property confiscated, and the Eumolpidae solemnly pronounced 

him “ accursed.” 

186. The Athenians had spent three months in Sicily with so little 
effect, that the Syracusans began to regard them with contempt. Nicias, 


172 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


thus shamed into attempting something, spread a report that the Catanseans 
were inclined to expel the Athenians from their city, and thus drew a large 
army from Syracuse to their aid. During its absence from home, the 
whole Athenian fleet sailed into the Great Harbor of Syracuse, and landed 
a force which intrenched itself near the mouth of the Anapus. A battle 
followed on the return of the Syracusans, and Nicias was successful. In¬ 
stead of following up this advantage, he retired into winter-quarters at 
Catana, and afterward at Naxos, while he sent to Athens for a supply of 
money, and to his Sicilian allies for a re-enforcement of men. 

The Syracusans spent the winter in active preparation. They built a 
new wall across the peninsula, between the Bay of Thapsus and the Great 
Port, covering their city on the west and north-west. They sent, at the 
same time, to Corinth and Sparta for help, and found in the latter city an 
unexpected ally. Alcibiades had crossed from Italy to Greece, and had 
received a special invitation to Sparta. Here he indulged his spite against 
his countrymen by revealing all their plans, and urging the Spartans to 
send an army into Sicily to disconcert their movements. 

187. With the opening of spring, Nicias commenced the siege by for- 

tifying the heights of Epipolse, which commanded the city. 

He built, also, a fort at Sy'ke, and dislodged the Syracusans 
from the counter-walls which they were constructing. The Athenian fleet 
was stationed in the Great Harbor, and the Syracusans, despairing of 
effectual resistance, sent messengers to arrange terms of surrender. But 
the brave Lamachus had been slain, and Nicias, now sole commander, 
was too inactive to seize the victory just within his grasp. 

188. At this point, Gylip'pus, the Spartan, arrived with only four ships 
on the Italian coast, and supposing that Syracuse and all Sicily were 
irrecoverably lost, sought only to preserve the cities on the peninsula. 
To his delight, he learned that the Athenians had not even completed 
their northern line of works around Syracuse. He hastened through the 
Straits of Messina, which he found unguarded, and, landing at HinPera, 
began to raise an army from the Dorian cities of Sicily. With these he 
marched to Syracuse directly over the heights of Epipolse, which Nicias 
had neglected to hold. Entering the city, he sent orders to the Athenian 
general to leave the island within five days. Nicias disregarded the mes¬ 
sage, but the acts which followed proved that the Spartan was master 
of the situation. He captured the Athenian fort at Labalum, built 
another upon the heights of Epipolse, and connected it with the city by 
a strong wall. 

The Sicilian towns which had hesitated now joined the winning side. 
Re-enforcements arrived from Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia; and Nicias, 
unable to continue the siege with his present force, withdrew to the 
headland of PlemmyPium, south of the Great Port. His ships were out 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


173 


of repair, his men disheartened and inclined to desert, and his own 
health declining. He wrote to Athens, begging that the army might be 
instantly re-enforced and he himself recalled. Athens was in a state of 
siege, for the Spartan king, Agis, was encamped at Decele / a, fourteen 
miles north of the city, in a position to command the whole Athenian * 
plain. The public funds were nearly exhausted, hunger began to be felt, 
and the diminished number of citizens were worn out with the labor of 
defending the walls day and night. It was resolved, however, to re-enforce 
Nicias, and, at the same time, harass Sparta on her own territory. For 
this purpose, Charicles was sent to plant a military station 

i i /•» • • • C« 413v 

on the south coast of Laconia, similar to that of Pylos in 

Messenia; while Demosthenes and Eurymedon conducted a fleet and army 

to Sicily. The first enterprise was successful; the second was too late. 

189. The Syracusans had been defeated in one naval battle, but in a 
second, lasting two days, they were completely victorious, and the Athenian 
ships were locked up in the extremity of the harbor. Demosthenes’ arrival 
with his fresh forces had some effect in checking the enemy and raising the 
spirits of his countrymen. Perceiving at once that Epipolae was the vital 
point, he directed all his efforts to its re-capture, but without success. 
Seeing, now, that the siege was hopeless, he urged Nicias to return home 
and drive the Spartans out of Attica. But, remembering the lively hopes 
and the magnificent ceremonies with which the armament had set forth, 
Nicias could not consent to return to Athens covered with the disgrace of 
failure. Neither would he withdraw to Thapsus or Catana, where Demos¬ 
thenes urged the advantages of an'-open sea and constant supplies of pro¬ 
visions. But, large re-enforcements arriving for Syracuse, this retreat be¬ 
came necessary, and the plans were so well laid that it might easily have 
been effected without the knowledge of the enemy. 

Unhappily, an eclipse of the moon occurred on the very eve of the 
intended movement. The imperfect astronomy of those days A 27 m 
had not foretold the event, and the soothsayers could only 
conclude that Artemis, the especial guardian of Syracuse, was showing her 
anger against its assailants. They declared that the army must remain 
three times nine days in its present position. During this delay, the dis¬ 
concerted plan became known to the Syracusans, who resolved to strike a 
blow while the enemy was within their reach. A battle by land and sea 
was the result. In the former, the Athenians beat off their assailants; 
but, in the latter, their fleet was utterly defeated and Eurymedon slain. 

190. The Syracusans now resolved upon the total destruction of their 
enemy. They blocked up the Great Harbor by a line of vessels moored 
across its entrance. The only hope for the Athenians, perhaps for Athens 
itself, was to break this line, and to this end Nicias again prepared for 
battle. The amphitheater of hills which surround the harbor was crowded 


174 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


with spectators of either party, watching with anxious eyes the conflict 
upon which their fates depended. The water was covered with the yachts 
of wealthy Syracusans, ready to offer their services whenever they might 
be demanded. The first attack of the Athenians was upon the barrier of 
ships at the entrance of the harbor. It failed, and the Syracusan fleet of 
76 triremes then engaged the 110 of the Athenians. . The crash of the iron 
prows, the shouts of the combatants, and the answering groans or cheers 
of their friends upon the shore, filled the air with a perpetual clamor. 
For a long time the issue was doubtful, but, at last, the fleet of Nicias 
began to retreat toward the shore. A cry of despair arose from the Athe¬ 
nian army, answered by shouts of triumph from the pursuing vessels and 
the citizens on the walls. 

The Athenian fleet was now reduced to sixty vessels, and the Syracusan 
to fifty. Nicias and Demosthenes besought their men to renew the effort 
to force their way out of the harbor, but their spirits were so far broken 
that they refused any further combat by sea. The army still numbered 
40,000 men, and it was resolved to retreat by land to some friendly city, 
where they could defend themselves until transports should arrive. If this 
design had been instantly put in execution, it might have been successful; 
for the Syracusans had given themselves up to drunken revelries, occa¬ 
sioned equally by the rejoicings over their victory and by the festival of 
Hercules, and had no thoughts to spare for their fugitive foe. But Her- 
moc / rates, the most prudent of their number, resolved to prevent what he 
foresaw would be the Athenian movement. He sent messengers to the 
wall, who pretended to come from spies of Nicias within the city, and 
warned the generals not to move that night, as all the roads were strongly 
guarded. Nicias fell into the snare, and sacrificed his last hope of escape. 

191. On the second day after the battle, the army began its march 
toward the interior, leaving the deserted fleet in the harbor, the dead un¬ 
buried, and the wounded to the vengeance of the foe. On the third day 
of the march, the road lay over a steep cliff, which was guarded by a Syr¬ 
acusan force. Two days’ assaults upon this position were unsuccessful, and 
the generals took counsel during the night to turn toward the sea. Nicias, 
with the van, succeeded in reaching the coast; but Demosthenes lost his 
way, was overtaken by the enemy, and surrounded in a narrow pass, where 
he surrendered the shattered remnants of his army, numbering six thousand 
men. Nicias was now pursued, and overtaken at the river Asina / rus. Mul¬ 
titudes perished in the attempt to cross. Pressed closely by the army of 
Gylippus, the rear rushed forward upon the spears of their comrades, or 
were hurled down the steep banks and carried away by the current. All 
order was lost, and Nicias surrendered at discretion. The generals were 
condemned to death. The common soldiers, imprisoned in the stone- 
quarries, without food or shelter, suffered greater miseries than all that 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


175 


had preceded. A few who survived were sold as slaves, and their talents 
and accomplishments won, in some instances, the friendship of their 
masters. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Alcibiades sustained the credit of Athens in the Olympic Gaines, carried aid 
to the Argives against the Spartans, and zealously promoted the Sicilian expe¬ 
dition of his countrymen. On the eve of departure he was accused of sacrilege, 
and after his arrival in Sicily he was sentenced to death, and pronounced ac¬ 
cursed. The siege of Syracuse, notwithstanding the great efforts of the Athe¬ 
nians, resulted in failure and disaster, while Athens itself was besieged by the 
king of Sparta. Reinforcements, led forth by Demosthenes, only completed the 
exhaustion of the city. The Syracusans gained a naval battle in their harbor, 
and captured the two Athenian armies in their retreat. 

Decline of Athens. 

192. In the midst of private grief and national dismay, the Athenians 

learned that their allies were deserting them. Alcibiades was stirring up 

revolts in Chios, which, with Lesbos and Euboea, implored the aid of Sparta 

to free them from their dependence. The two satraps of Asia Minor sent 

envoys to the same power, inviting her cooperation in over- 

• • • • • • B. 0. 412. 

throwing the Athenian empire in Asia, and pledging Persian 

gold for the entire expense. To the lasting shame of Sparta, she concluded 

a treaty at Miletus, engaging to unite with Persia in a war against Athens, 

and to restore to the Persian dominion all the cities and territories which 

it had formerly embraced. This clause was explained, in a subsequent 

treaty, to include not only all the isWnds of the iEgean, but Thessaly and 

Bceotia, thus yielding to the Persians the field of Plataea, and fixing their 

frontier on the very border of Attica. Miletus itself was immediately 

surrendered to Tissapliernes. 

193. In thii general defection Samos remained faithful, and afforded a 
most important station for the Athenian fleet during the remaining years 
of the war. The Samians, warned by the example of Chios, overthrew 
their oligarchical government, and the democracy thus established was 
acknowledged by Athens as an equal and independent ally. Great prep¬ 
arations were now made in Athens. The reserve fund of a thousand 
talents, which had lain untouched since the time of Pericles, was applied 
to fitting out a fleet against Chios. Once more the Athenians were suc¬ 
cessful, both by sea and land. Lesbos and Clazomence were reconquered, 
the Chians defeated, and, in a battle near Miletus, the Spartans themselves 
were overcome. That city remained in the hands of the Persians and 
Lacedemonians, but the relations between these widely contrasted allies 
were no longer cordial. The Spartans were ashamed of their dealings 
with the great enemy of Greece, and Tissaphernes was under the influence 
of Alcibiades. This deeply plotting Athenian persuaded the satrap that 


176 


ANC1EXT HISTORY. 


it was not the interest of Persia to allow any party in Greece to become 
powerful, but, rather, to let them wear each other out by mutual hostilities, 
and then appropriate the domains of both. This advice tended most against 
the Spartans, who were now so strongly reinforced that they might soon 
have put an end to the war. Tissaphernes, accordingly, held the Spartan 
fleet inactive, waiting for the Phoenicians, who were never to appear; and 
when this pretext would no longer avail, he applied his golden arguments 
to its commanders with the same effect. 

104. Alcibiades now sought to bring the satrap into alliance with 
Athens; and failing in this, he tried at least to convince his countrymen 
at Samos that he had power to effect such an alliance, for his sole desire 
was to be recalled to his native city. Hating and fearing the Athenian 
democracy, he made one condition, however, to his intercession with the 
Persian, which was, that a revolution should be effected, and an oligarchical 
government established. The generals at Samos acceded to this plan, and 
Pisander was sent to Athens to organize the political clubs in favor of the 
revolution. 

When he presented the scheme of Alcibiades in the Assembly, a great 
tumult arose. The people clamored against the surrender of their rights; 
the Eumolpidae protested against the return of a wretch who had profaned 
the Mysteries. Pisander could only plead the exhaustion and the misery 
of the Republic; but this argument, though distasteful, was unanswerable. 
The people reluctantly consented to the change in the constitution, and 
Pisander, with ten colleagues, was sent to treat with Alcibiades. The 
exile well knew that he had promised more than he could perform. To 
save his credit, he received the eleven ambassadors in the presence of Tis¬ 
saphernes, and made such extravagant demands in his name, that they 
themselves angrily broke up the conference and withdrew. 

195. Though convinced that they had been cheated by Alcibiades, they 

r 411 had now gone too far to recede from the proposed revolu¬ 

tion. Pisander, with five of his colleagues, returned to 
Athens, while the rest went about among the allies to establish oli¬ 
garchies. At Athens the old offices were abolished, and a Council of Four 
Hundred, chiefly self-elected, held power for four months. By the aid of 
the army at Samos, a counter-revolution was effected, and the leaders of 
the oligarchy were accused of treason for their dealings with the Spartaos. 
Most of them fled ; but two, APcheptoPemus and Antiphon, were tried and 
executed. 

19G. The remainder of the Peloponnesian war was wholly maritime, 
and its scene of operations was on the coast of Asia Minor. The Spartans, 
by long practice and close collision with their great rivals, had become 
nearly equal to the Athenians in naval skill. Their attention to this arm 
of the service was shown by the yearly appointment of the navarchus , an 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


177 


officer whose power, while it lasted, was even greater than that of the 
kings, for he was above the control of the ephors. 

197. Min'darus, the Spartan commander at Miletus, becoming disgusted 

with the fickle policy of Tissaphernes, set sail for the Hellespont, hoping 
to find the other satrap more constant to the Spartan alliance. He was 
followed by an Athenian fleet, under ThrasyFlus, which, though less nu¬ 
merous than his own, inflicted upon him a severe defeat , 

^ Jd« C• 411. 

in the strait between Sestus and Abydus. Mindarus now 
sent for the allied fleet at Euboea, but in passing Mount Athos it was 
overtaken by a violent storm, and wholly destroyed. The Athenians fol¬ 
lowed up their advantage by the capture of Cyz'icus, which had revolted 
from them; and, a few weeks later, gained another great battle near 
Abydus, by the timely aid of Alcibiades. 

198. In the spring of 410, Mindarus was besieging Cyzicus, and the 
Athenians determined to relieve it. They passed up the Hellespont in the 
night, and assembled at Proconnesus. Alcibiades moved toward Cyzicus 
with his division of the fleet, and succeeded in enticing Mindarus to a 
distance from the harbor, while the other two divisions stole between him 
and the city, and thus cut off his retreat. A battle ensued, in which 
Mindarus was slain, the Spartans and their Persian allies routed, and the 
entire Peloponnesian fleet captured, except the Syracusan ships, which 
Hermocrates caused to be burnt. 

199. This victory restored to the Athenians the control of the Propontis 
and the trade of the Euxine. Ships laden with corn now entered Piraeus, 
bearing relief to the hungry poor, ahd discouragement to King Agis, who 
still held the heights of Decelea, in the vain hope of starving the city into 
surrender. 

Pharnabazus, meanwhile, was aiding the Spartans by every means in his 
power. He fed and clothed, armed and paid their seamen, allowed them 
to cut timber in the forests of Mount Ida, and build their ships at his docks 
of Antandros. Through his assistance, Chalcedon, on the Bosphorus, was 
enabled to hold out two years against Alcibiades. It surrendered at last, 
in 408. SelynPbria and Byzantium were taken about the same time. 

200. These repeated successes restored the credit of Alcibiades, and, in 
the spring of 407, he was welcomed back to his native city. All the people 
met him at Piraeus, with as much joy and enthusiasm as they had escorted 
him thither, eight years before, when sailing for the fatal expedition to 
Sicily. He protested his innocence before the Senate and Assembly. His 
sentence was reversed by acclamation, his property restored, the curse re¬ 
voked, and he was made general, with unlimited powers. Before his de¬ 
parture, with the large fleet and army which were now at his disposal, he 
resolved to atone to Demeter for whatever slight had been thrown upon her 
by his alleged sacrilege. The sacred procession from Athens to Eleusis had 

A. H.—12. 


178 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


been intermitted these seven years, owing to the nearness of the Spartan 
troops. Alcibiades now delayed his departure, in order to escort and 
protect the participants. 

201. The arrival of two new officers upon the Asiatic field of war 

turned the scale against Athens. The one was Cyrus, a 
B C 407 ° 4/7 

son of the Persian king; the other was Lysander, the new 

Spartan navarchus, who took command of the Peloponnesian fleet at 
Ephesus. These two made common cause, and together took measures 
for severe and unrelenting war against the Athenians. The gold which 
the Persian prince lavished without stint, the Spartan applied to in¬ 
creasing the wages of his seamen. By this well-timed liberality, he drew 
over great numbers of men from the opposing fleet, and rendered even 
those who did not desert, discontented and mutinous. 

202. Alcibiades arrived with his fleet to find the situation less favorable 
than he had hoped. The Spartan troops were better paid and equipped 
than his own, and to raise funds he resorted to levying forced contribu¬ 
tions on friendly states. During his absence on one of these forays, the 
fleet became engaged in battle with the Spartans, and was defeated with 
considerable loss. The Athenians began to perceive that eight years’ 
exile and two or three years’ good behavior, had not altered the character 
of the man, but that he was as dissolute, fickle, and unscrupulous as ever. 
They dismissed him from his command, and appointed ten generals, with 
Conon at their head. 

203. At the same time that Conon arrived to take command of the 

Athenians, CaPlicrat'idas succeeded Lysander as nuvarchm. 
B. C. 406. ’ 17 

He found an empty treasury and a cold reception, alike 

from his own countrymen and the Persians, whom Lysander had pur¬ 
posely prejudiced against him. Cyrus refused to see or aid him. Calli- 
cratidas now took bolder counsel. He sailed to Miletus, and urged its 
citizens to throw off the Persian alliance. Many rich men came forward 
with generous contributions of money, with which he equipped fifty new 
triremes, and sailed to Lesbos with a fleet twice as numerous as that of 
the Athenians. 

204. He had a battle with Conon in the harbor of Mytilene, in which 
the Athenians lost nearly half their ships, and only saved the rest by 
drawing them ashore under the walls of the town. Callicratidas then 
blockaded the city by sea and land; and Cyrus, perceiving his success, 
assisted him with supplies of money. Great efforts were made at Athens, 
as soon as the condition of Conon was known. A large fleet was sent 
out in a few days, and being reinforced by the allies at Samos, arrived 
at the south-eastern extremity of Lesbos, numbering 150 vessels. Calli¬ 
cratidas left fifty ships to continue the blockade, and sailed to meet his 
enemy. 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


179 


Battle of Arginusae. A long and obstinate combat followed; but 
Callicratidas was at length thrown overboard and drowned, and victory 
declared for the Athenians. The Spartans had lost seventy-seven vessels, 
and their fleet at Mytilene hastily withdrew, leaving the harbor open for 
the escape of Conon. 

205. At the beginning of the next year, Lysander was again placed in 

command of the Spartan fleet. His numbers being still i 

inferior, he avoided an engagement, but he crossed the 

/Egean to the coast of Attica, for a personal consultation with Agis, and 
thence proceeded to the Hellespont, where he commenced the siege 
of Lampsacus. The Athenian fleet followed, but arrived too late to save 
the town. Conon stationed himself, however, at iEgos-Potami (Goat’s 
River), on the northern side of the channel, with the intention of bringing 
the Spartan to an engagement. The Athenians were upon a barren plain; 
while the Spartans, better situated and abundantly supplied with pro¬ 
visions, were in no haste to begin the battle. Alcibiades, who was living 
near in his own castle, saw the danger of his countrymen, and advised 
their generals to remove to Sestus, but his counsels were resented as im¬ 
pertinence ; and attributing the Spartan delay to cowardice, the Athenians 
became every day more neglectful of discipline. 

206. Battle of ^Egos-Potami. At length Lysander, seizing a moment 
when the Athenian seamen were scattered over the country, c 4Q _ gept 
crossed the strait with his entire force. Only a dozen vessels, 

in Conon’s personal command, were in condition for battle; and the whole 
fleet, with the exception of the flag-ship, the sacred PaPalus, and eight or 
ten others, fell into the Spartan possession without a blow. Three or four 
thousand prisoners, including officers and men, were massacred, in retalia¬ 
tion for recent cruelties of the Athenians in the treatment of their captives. 
The defeat at ^Egos-Potami was the death-blow of the Athenian empire. 
Chalcedon, Byzantium, and Mytilene soon surrendered; and all the Athe¬ 
nian towns, except that of Samos, fell without resistance into the hands 
of the Spartans. Popular governments were every-where overthrown, 
and a new form of oligarchy was established, consisting of ten citizens, 
with a Spartan officer, called a havimost , at their head. 

207. The news of the great calamity arrived in the night at Piraeus. 
A cry of sorrow and despair spread instantly from the port to the city, 
as each man passed the terrible tidings to his neighbor. “That night 
no man slept;”* and in the morning the Assembly was called, to consider 
how the existence of the city might be prolonged. The situation was 
desperate. Even though no hostile force should approach Athens, Lysan¬ 
der, by holding the Euxine, could effectually reduce it to starvation. 


# The words of Xenophon, who was present in Athens. 



180 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


The number of citizens was so diminished, that even criminals could 
not be spared from public service. All prisoners were released, except a 
few murderers and desperate villains; private offenses were forgotten in 
the common danger, and all Athenians united in a solemn oath of mutua/ 
forgiveness. 

208. Two months after the defeat, Lysander appeared at iEgina with 
an overwhelming naval force; and, at the same time, the 
Peloponnesian army encamped in the groves of Academia, 
near the gates of Athens. Yet, though some of the people were already 
dying of hunger, their spirit was not broken; and when the Spartan 
ephors proposed peace on condition of the destruction of the Long Walls, 
a senator was imprisoned for merely discussing the acceptance of these 
terms. When, at last, the Athenians sent offers of capitulation, three 
months were wasted in vain debate before the terms could be settled. 


B. C. 405, Nov. 


The Thebans and Corinthians insisted that no conditions should be 
granted, but that the very name of Athens should be blotted out, her 
site become a desert, and her people be sold into slavery. The Spartans, 
with more generosity, refused to “ put out one of the eyes of Greece,” or 
to enslave a people which had rendered such services to the whole Hellenic 
race in the great crisis of the Persian wars. 

It was finally agreed that the Long Walls and the fortifications of Pirseus 
should be destroyed, the ships of war surrendered, all exiles restored to 
their rights of citizenship, and all the foreign possessions of Athens relin¬ 
quished. These hard conditions were executed with needless insolence. 
Lysander himself presided at the demolition of the walls; and the work, 
which was rendered very difficult by the solidity of their construction, was 
turned into a sort of festal celebration. A chorus of flute-players and 
dancers, wreathed with flowers, animated the workmen at their toil; and 
as the massive walls of Pericles fell, stone by stone, shouts of triumph 
arose from the army of destroyers that this day witnessed the dawn of the 
liberties of Greece. 

201). The Athenian supremacy had lasted seventy-three years from the 

_ confederation at Delos. The power which had been intrusted 

B. C. 477-404. ... 

to the imperial city for the common defense, had, in some 
cases, been made to bear heavily on the subject allies, and her later history 
is stained by many acts of cruelty. But the true empire of Athens has 
never been overthrown; for, through poetry, art, and philosophy, she still 
rules the minds of men with a power which has never been surpassed. 


RECAPITULATION. 

The rivals, subjects, and enemies of Athens united to hasten her fall; and to 
this end Sparta promised to the Persians Thessaly, Bceotia, the islands of the 
Aegean, and the coast of Asia Minor. Alcibiades partly neutralized the Spartan 
influence with the satraps, and secured an oligarchical revolution in Athens as 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


181 


the price of his efforts in her favor. Through his aid the Athenians gained sev¬ 
eral great naval victories in the northern ..Egean, which restored to them the 
corn-trade of the Euxine, and relieved the famine in their besieged city. The 
gold of Cyrus the Younger, and the skill of Lysander, again turned the tide 
against the Athenians, who were twice defeated; and, though afterward tri¬ 
umphant near the Arginuste, received a final and disastrous overthrow at iEgos- 
Potami, which ended their supremacy in Greece. The subject towns fell into the 
power of the Spartans; and, the following spring, Athens itself was surrendered 
to Lysauder, and its Long Walls destroyed. 

Spartan Supremacy. 

210. Sparta, in alliance with Persia, now became the leading state in 
Greece; and all the cities yielded to her influence, by abolishing their 
free governments and setting up oligarchies in their stead. Athens her¬ 
self received a thoroughly Spartan constitution. A provisional committee 
of live, called ephors, invited Lysander from Santos to preside over the re¬ 
organization of Athens. Under his direction, thirty officers were appointed 
for the government of the city, who have always been known in history as 
the “ Thirty Tyrants.” 

211. Critias was their chief. Having been banished formerly by a vote 
of the people, he now wreaked his vengeance with unsparing 

1j • A/ 1 • tKJI • 

cruelty on the best and noblest citizens. Blood flowed daily 
and fines, imprisonments, and confiscations were the events of every hour. 
By the advice of TheranPenes, who was the head of the more moderate 
party, three thousand citizens were chosen from the adherents of the 
Thirty, whose sanction was required_for important proceedings. But all, 
except this enfranchised number, were placed beyond the protection of the 
law, and might be put to death, at the word of the tyrants, without even a 
show of trial. A list was made of those who were destined to death, and 
any of the ruling party might add to it such names as either avarice or 
hatred suggested to him. The wealthiest citizens were, of course, the first 
victims, for the estate of the murdered man went to his accuser. Thera- 
menes, in his turn, was offered a wealthy alien to destroy and plunder, but 
he indignantly rejected the proposal. This implied protest against the 
reign of terror cost him his life. He was denounced as a public enemy, 
his name stricken from the roll of the Thirty, and from that of the Three 
Thousand, and he was ordered to instant execution. He sprang to the 
altar in the senate-house; but fear of divine vengeance had disappeared, 
together with humanity and justice, from the rulers of Athens. He was 
dragged away to prison, and condemned to drink the hemlock. 

212. The tide was already turning, both in the ill-fated city and through¬ 
out Greece. Athens, in her humiliation, no longer excited the fear or jeal¬ 
ousy of her former allies; while Sparta, instead of making good her assumed 
title of “ Liberator of the Greeks,” was setting up a new empire more op¬ 
pressive than that of her rival. Even in Sparta itself, the pride and 


182 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


harshness of Lysander excited disgust, and the Thirty Tyrants at Athens 
were universally regarded as the tools of his scheming ambition. 

The Athenian exiles, who had been biding their time, now issued from 
Thebes, under the lead of Thrasybu / lus, and seized the fortress of Phy'le, 
in the mountain barrier of Attica, on the road to the capital. The tyrants, 
with the Spartan garrison of the Acropolis and the Three Thousand, 
marched out to attack them, but were repulsed with spirit, and a timely 
snow-storm broke up their attempt to besiege the fortress, and drove them 
back to the city. Foreseeing their expulsion, the Thirty now provided for 
themselves a place of refuge by another horrid outrage. They caused all 
the inhabitants of Salamis and Eleusis, who were capable of bearing arms, 
to be brought as prisoners to Athens, and the towns to be occupied by 
garrisons in their own interest. Then filling the Odeon with Spartan 
soldiers and their three thousand adherents, they extorted from this 
assembly a vote for the immediate massacre of the prisoners. 

213. Thrasybulus, supported by the indignation of the people, now 

marched with a thousand men to Piraeus, seized the port 
B. C. 403. . ... . . 

without opposition, and fortified himself upon its- castle-hill, 

Munych'ia. The whole Lacedaemonian party in Athens marched against 
him, and was defeated with considerable loss, in which must be reckoned 
the death of Critias. The more moderate party now gained ascendancy; 
the Thirty were deposed after a reign of eight months, and ten less atro¬ 
cious rulers were elected in their place. The more violent members of the 
Thirty retired to Eleusis, and both parties sent envoys to Sparta asking aid. 
Lysander again entered Athens with an army, while his brother blockaded 
Piraeus with a fleet. 

At this point, however, Lysander was superseded, and the Spartan king, 
Pausanias, after being first repulsed, but afterward victorious over Thra¬ 
sybulus, entered upon negotiations for peace. Amnesty was decreed for 
all past offenses, except those of the Thirty, the Eleven, * and the Ten. 
The exiles were restored, and Thrasybulus with his comrades now marched 
in solemn procession from Piraeus, to present their thank-offerings to Athena 
on the Acropolis. In a subsequent assembly of the people, all the acts of* 
the Thirty Tyrants were annulled, the arclions, judges, and Senate of Five 
Hundred were restored, and a revised code of the laws of Draco and Solon 
was ordered. Thrasybulus and his party were rewarded with wreaths of 
olive for their rescue of the city. 

214. Death of Socrates. Though humbled and reduced from their 

n qoo former greatness, the Athenians now rejoiced in the restora- 

tion of their ancient laws. Their city, their temples, and all 
their old customs and beliefs became doubly dear and sacred, from the 


* The executioners who had put in effect the bloody sentences of the tyrants. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


183 


perils through which they had passed. The worst effect of this conservative 
reaction was the condemnation and death of Socrates. This great philoso¬ 
pher belonged to no political party, and had opposed the extreme measures 
of both ; but he had fought on many battle-fields, and had always used his 
power as a citizen in favor of justice and mercy. Critias had been his 
pupil, but when in power had hated and persecuted his former instructor. 
His impeachment now came from the opposite party. He was accused of 
despising the gods of Athens, of introducing a new worship, and of cor¬ 
rupting the Athenian youth. The dissoluteness of Alcibiades may have 
given some color to this charge, though it is certain that his youthful im¬ 
pieties and subsequent misconduct were in spite of his master’s instructions, 
not on account of them. 

Being called upon for his defense, Socrates replied that, so far from vio¬ 
lating the state religion, he had constantly admonished his disciples not to 
depart from the established customs. He refused to be released on terms 
which required him to desist from teaching. To develop wisdom and virtue 
in the young had been the passion of his life. He claimed no wisdom of 
his own, but sought to draw out the thoughts of others to just conclusions. 
And if he could persuade any that the care of becoming every day wiser 
and better must take precedence of all other cares, he was sure that he 
had conferred the greatest possible benefit. The high tone of his defense 
only irritated his judges, and he was condemned to death by poison. 

The Paralus had now gone on its sacred yearly mission to the isle of 
Delos, and no execution could take place until its return. The thirty days 
thus spent by Socrates in prison wWe filled with inspiring converse with 
his friends. He spoke cheerfully of the past and the future, and expressed 
his immovable conviction of the immortality of the soul. His last request 
was that a cock should be sacrificed in his name to iEscula'pius, * an 
offering which persons were accustomed to make on their recovery from 
illness — by this common symbol testifying to all the people that he con¬ 
sidered death as a joyful release from a state of imperfection and disease. 
When the appointed moment arrived, he drank the hemlock and calmly 
expired. 

215. Invasion of Elis. The Eleans were among the first to feel the 
unchecked power of Sparta. As guardians of the sacred grove at Olympia, 
they had excluded the Spartans from the games at the time when the 
Athenians appeared, with such magnificence, under the direction of Alci¬ 
biades, and they had borne arms against them, in alliance with the Argives 
and Mantineans (B. C. 420-416). They had crowned their insults by 
ejecting King Agis from their temple, when he had come with sacrifices 
to consult the oracle. Agis now demanded satisfaction, which the Eleans 

* Tlie god of healing, a son ol' Apollo. 


184 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


B. C. 402. 

liis courage 
B. C. 401. 


B. C. 898. 


refused to give, and he crossed their borders with a considerable force. 

An earthquake alarmed his superstition, and he retired 
without any active hostility. But the next year renewed 
With a large number of allies, among whom even the 
Athenians appeared, he overran and plundered the sacred 
land, and performed by force the sacrifice which he had 
been prevented from offering peaceably. Thus victorious in his first 
expedition, the Spartan turned his vengeance upon the Messenians, who 
had been settled in his territory or upon the neighboring islands, and 
expelled or enslaved them all. 

216. A year later King Agis died, and his brother Agesila'us received 
his crown. Agesilaus was brave, honest, and energetic, and 
the circumstances of his reign called for a constant exercise 

of these Spartan virtues. The aid rendered by the Lacedaemonians, in the 
revolt of Cyrus, had not escaped the notice of the Persian king; and Tis- 
saphernes, who now possessed the satrapy of the rebellious prince, was in¬ 
structed to drive them from all their cities on the Asiatic coasts. The 
first efforts of the Spartans, under inferior commanders, had but indifferent 
success, and Agesilaus himself prepared to assume the command in Asia. 

217. The headquarters of the Grecian forces were at Ephesus, where the 
army arrived B. C. 396. The winter was spent in busy preparations, 
which gave this wealthy city the appearance of one immense arsenal. In 
the spring of 395 he advanced upon Sardis, and put the Persian cavalry 
to flight. The plunder of their camp enriched the Spartans, who now 
ravaged the country almost under the eyes of Tissaphernes. But about 
this time the satrap fell into the power of Parysatis, the queen motfier, 
who caused him to be beheaded for his former opposition to Cyrus. His 
successor, Tithraus / tes, proposed terms of peace, the Greek cities to remain 
independent, with the exception of a yearly tribute, the same that they 
had paid to Darius Hvstaspes. 

218. Meanwhile war had broken out in Greece between Thebes and 
Sparta, and the former had called in Athens, her ancient enemy and rival, 
with a promise to aid in restoring her lost supremacy. Lysander, who 

commanded the Spartan forces in Bceotia, was defeated and 
slain at Haliar'tus. Pausanias, arriving too late for his 
assistance, dared not return to Sparta with the army, but took refuge ir. 
the temple of Athena at Tegea; and being sentenced to death by his 
countrymen, passed the remainder of his days in the sanctuary. His son, 
Agesip / olis, succeeded to his throne. 

219. The Corinthian War. Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Thebes 
now formed a close alliance against Sparta, which was soon 
strengthened by the addition of Euboea, Acarnania, western 

Locris, Ambracia, Leucadia, and Chalcidice in Thrace. The allies assem- 


n. c. 395. 


B. C. 394-387 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


185 


bled a large army at Corinth in the spring of 394, and it was proposed to 
march directly upon Sparta, and “ burn the wasps in their nests before 
they could come forth to sting.” The Lacedsemonians, however, had 
advanced to Sicyon by the time the allies reached Nemea, and the latter 
were obliged to fall back for the protection of Corinth. The Spartans 
attacked them near the city and gained a victory, July, 394. 

220. Agesilaus had been unwillingly recalled from his war against 
Persia, and now appeared in the north with a powerful army, in which 
were numbered Xenophon* and many of the Ten Thousand. On hearing 
of the victory of Corinth, the king exclaimed, “ Alas for Greece! she has 
killed enough of her sons to have conquered all the barbarians.” Agesilaus 
advanced to Coronsea, where another battle was soon fought. 

B. C. 394. 

The Thebans were at first successful, and, having routed the 
Orchomenians, pressed through to their camp in the rear. But while they 
were plundering this, Agesilaus had been victorious along the rest of the 
line, and had driven the allies to take refuge upon the slope of Mount 
Helicon. The Thebans, thus surrounded, had to sustain the whole weight 
of the Spartan attack, and no severer combat had ever been known in 
Grecian annals. They succeeded at last in rejoining their comrades, but 
the victory remained with Agesilaus. 

221. Battle of Cnidus. Their two successful battles of Corinth and 
Coronsea were far from compensating the Spartans for the disastrous defeat 
which befell them the same season at Cnidus. Conon, who had spent the 
seven years since his disgrace at iEgos-Potami, with Evagoras of Cyprus, 
now reappeared, in alliance witli-the ancient foe of Greece, against the 
bitter enemy and rival of Athens. Artaxerxes, perceiving the hatred which 
began to be felt against the growing power of Sparta, had sent envoys to 
the principal cities of Greece, to unite them in a league for resistance, 
while he dispatched a large sum of money to Conon, to equip a fleet 
among the Greeks and Phoenicians of the sea-board. In command of this 
fleet, Conon was blockaded at Caunus by the Spartan, Pharax; but a re¬ 
inforcement arriving for the Persians, the blockading squadron withdrew 
to Rhodes. The people of that island had unwillingly endured so long 
the rule of the Spartans. They rose against Pharax, compelled him to 
depart, anil placed themselves under the protection of Conon. This ad¬ 
miral immediately sailed to Rhodes and took possession of the island; 


* Though an Athenian, Xenophon was an exile, and preferred the institutions 
of Sparta to those of his native city. Among the principal works of this historian 
are tlie Anabasis, an account of the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger, and the retreat 
of the Ten Thousand ; the Hellenica , a history of the Greeks from the close of the 
period described by Thucydides to the battle of Mantinea, B. C. 362; the Cyropcedia, 
an historical romance in praise of Cyrus the Great; and the Memorabilia, a defense 
of the memory of Socrates from the charge of irreligion. 



186 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


then repaired to Babylon, where he obtained a still more liberal grant of 
money from Artaxerxes, for the active prosecution of the war. 

With the aid of Pharnabazus, who was joined with him in command, 
he equipped a powerful fleet and offered battle to Pisan / der, the Spartan 
admiral, off Cnidus, in Caria. The Persian force, consisting of Greeks and 
Phoenicians, was superior from the first, and especially when Pisander was 
deserted, in the course of the battle, by his Asiatic allies. He fought, 
however, with the bravery of a Spartan, until his death put an end to the 
contest. More than half the Spartan fleet was either captured or destroyed. 
As a result of this defeat, the Spartan empire fell even more rapidly than 
it had risen eight years before. Conon and Pharnabazus sailed from port 
to port, and were received as deliverers by all the Asiatic Greeks. The 
Spartan harmosts everv-where fled before their arrival. Abydus and the 
Thracian Chersonesus alone withstood the power of Athens and Persia, 

222. The following spring, the fleet of Conon and Pharnabazus crossed 

the AEgean, laid waste the eastern borders of Laconia, and 

B. C. 393. 

established an Athenian garrison on the island of Cythera. 
The Persian, by gold and promises, assured the allies, whom he met at 
Corinth, of his unfailing support against Sparta; and he employed the 
seamen of the fleet in rebuilding the Long Walls of Athens and the 
fortifications of the Pineus. The recent services of Conon more than 
erased the memory of his former disasters, and he was hailed by his 
countrymen as a second founder of Athens and restorer of her greatness. 

223. The war was henceforth carried on in the Corinthian territory, 
and the main object of the allies was to guard the three passes in the 
mountains which extend across the southern part of the isthmus. The 
most westerly of these was defended by the long walls which ran from 
Corinth to Lechse'um; the other two, by strong garrisons of the allied 
troops. The Spartans were at Sicyon, whence they could easily ravage the 
fertile plain, and plunder the country-seats of the wealthy Corinthians. 
The aristocratic party in Corinth began to complain, and to sigh for their 
ancient alliance with Sparta. The ruling faction, on the other hand, 
invited a company ot Argives into the city, and massacred a large number 
of their opponents. The aristocrats avenged themselves by admitting 
PraxPtas, the Spartan leader, within their long walls, and a battle was 
fought within this confined space, in which the Corinthians were defeated. 
The Spartans destroyed a large portion of the walls, and, marching across 
the isthmus, captured two places on the Saronic Gulf. 

The Athenians, alarmed by the door being thus thrown open for the 
invasion of their own territory, marched with a force of carpenters and 
B. c. 392 masons to the isthmus, and aided the Corinthians to re¬ 
build the walls. They were building, how r ever, for their 
enemies; for the next summer, Agesilaus, with the Spartan fleet, gained 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


187 


possession not only of the walls, but the port of Lechaeum. Several other 
towns on the Corinthian Gulf, with much booty and many captives, also 
fell into his possession. The Lacedaemonians now surrounded Corinth on 
all sides, and the Thebans, despairing of success for the allies, sent envoys 
demanding peace. 

224. While they were still in the presence of Agesilaus, he received 
news of an unprecedented and mortifying disaster. Iphicrates, the Athe¬ 
nian, had been for two years drilling a troop of mercenaries in a new 
system of tactics, which was intended to combine the advantages of both 
heavy and light-armed troops. He had proved their efficiency in several 
trials, and was now ready to test them upon the Spartan battalion, which 
was considered almost invincible. The Spartans were returning to the 
camp at Lechaeum— having escorted their Amyclsean comrades some 
distance on their way homeward to celebrate a religious festival — when 
they were attacked, in flank and rear, with arrows and javelins. Bur¬ 
dened with their heavy armor, they were unable to cope with their agile 
antagonists, while their long pikes were of little use against the short 
swords of the peltasts. They broke at length in confusion, and many were 
driven into the sea, followed by their assailants, who wrestled with and 
slew them in the water. 

225. The war in Asia went on with varying success. Thimbron, the 
Spartan, was defeated and slain by the Persian, Struthas, _ oniv 
with the total loss of his army of 8,000 men. About the 

same time an Athenian squadron,^which was going to assist Evagoras- 
against Persia, was captured by a Spartan fleet. Thrasybulus was then 
sent with a larger naval force, with which he re-established Athenian 
power in the Propontis, and re-imposed the toll anciently collected by 
Athens on all vessels passing out of the Euxine. In the midst of this ex¬ 
pedition Thrasybulus was slain. The Spartans, by renewed exertions, 
again became for a time masters of the straits; but Iphicrates, with his 
peltasts, surprised their leader among the passes of Mount Ida, and gained 
a decisive victory, which restored the Athenian supremacy in that region. 

226. Peace of Antalcidas. The Spartans now made an effort toward 
peace by sending Antalcidas to the Persian court. The king ^ c g87 
accepted their propositions, and furnished means to enforce 

them. A large fleet, commanded by Antalcidas and Tiribazus, visited the 
Hellespont, and by cutting off the supplies of corn from the Euxine, threat¬ 
ened Athens with famine. All the states were now ready to listen to terms, 
and in a congress of deputies TirPbazus presented the following proposi¬ 
tions: “ King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia, and the 
islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus should belong to him. He thinks it 
just to leave all the other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent, 
except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong to Athens, as of 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


188 


old.” The Thebans at first objected, but being threatened with war by the 
Spartans, at length took the oath. The terms which thus prostrated Greece 
at the feet of Persia, were engraven on tablets of stone and set up in every 
temple. 

RECAPITULATION. 

The second period of Spartan supremacy was signalized by the abolition of 
free governments throughout Greece. Athens, under the Thirty Tyrants, suffered 
for eight months a reign of terror. Thrasybulus, with the Athenian exiles, 
effected the expulsion of the tyrants, the restoration of free government, and a 
conservative reaction which occasioned, among other results, the execution of Soc¬ 
rates. The Spartans plundered the sacred laud of Elis, and expelled or enslaved 
all the Messenians who remained upon their soil. Agesilaus, succeeding his 
brother as king of Sparta, became involved in war with Pei’sia. In the contest 
with Thebes, Lysander was killed, and the king Pausanias disgraced. During 
the Corinthian War which followed, Sparta was victorious at Corinth and 
Coronsea, but suffered a disastrous overthrow from the Persian fleet under 
Conon, in the battle of Cnidus, which resulted in the sudden downfall of her 
supremacy. The Long Walls of Athens and the fortifications of the Pirxeus were 
rebuilt, under the superintendence of Conon. The Peace of Antalcidas gave to 
the Persian king a controlling voice in Grecian affairs, with the sovereignty of 
Asiatic Greece, and of the islands of Cyprus and Clazomense. 


Supremacy of Thebes. 

2*27. The Spartan hatred of Thebes was not allayed by the return of 
B peace. To annoy the latter city, Platsea* was rebuilt, and 

as many as possible of its former citizens brought back. An 
expedition against Olynthus gave occasion for a more decided act of lios- 
v tility. Phce / bidas, on his march through Boeotia, happened to approach 
Thebes on a festal day, when the citadel was occupied only by women. 
Aided by some citizens who were in secret alliance with Sparta, he seized 
the Cadmea, had the chief of the patriotic party put to death on a false 
charge, and effected a revolution in the government which made Thebes 
only a subservient ally of Sparta. The Eacedcemonians pretended to join 
in the general indignation of Greece at this outrage; but though they dis¬ 
missed Phoebidas, they kept the Cadmea. 

228. Olynthian AY ar. The war in Macedonia was now prosecuted 
u. C. 382. with the aid of Thebes. Olynthus, in the Chalcidian penin¬ 
sula, had become the head of a powerful confederacy of 
Grecian cities; but AcanThus and Apollo'nia refused to join it, and 
applied to Sparta for help. AmynTas, king of Macedonia, took their part, 
and joined his troops with those of Eudamidas. Olynthus, by means of 
its excellent cavalry, held out bravely for four years; but at last it fell, 
and the league was dissolved. The Macedonian ports returned into sub¬ 
jection to Amvntas, while the Greek cities joined the Spartan alliance. 


0 See p. 163. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 


189 


Sparta was now leagued on all sides with the enemies of Greece: with the 
Persians, with Dionysius of Syracuse, and with Macedon. By the destruc¬ 
tion of the Olynthian League, she had removed the chief obstacle to the 
Macedonian power, which was soon to overthrow the freedom of the 
Greeks. 

229. Thebes remained three years in the control of the Lacedaemonian 
party. But the citizens were discontented, and a company of exiles at 
Athens were awaiting an opportunity of vengeance. Among them was 
Pelop'idas, a noble and wealthy youth, who had already distinguished 
himself by his patriotism. He was the ardent friend of Epam / inon / das, 
a Theban of greater age and still more exalted virtue than himself. A 
plan was now formed among the exiles for the deliverance 

D. v. 0/9* 

of Thebes. Pelopidas was its leader; but Epaminondas at 
first held back, because the execution of the plot required deceit, and the 
possible shedding of innocent blood. He was a strict Pythagorean; and 
so pure were his principles, that he was never known to trifle with the 
truth even in jest, or to sacrifice it for any interest. 

230. PliyElidas, secretary of the Theban government, was in the plot,, 
and took a leading part in its execution. He invited to supper the two- 
polemarcbs, APchias and Philip'pus, with the principal Spartan leaders; 
and when they were sufficiently stupefied with eating and drinking, lie 
proposed to introduce some Theban ladies. Before these entered, a mes¬ 
senger brought a letter to Archias, and begged his attention, as it con¬ 
tained a matter of serious importanceV- But the polemarcli only thrust the 
letter under the cushions of his couch, saying, “Serious matters to¬ 
morrow ! ” 

Pelopidas and his friends, who had arrived in the city disguised as 
hunters, now entered the banquet-room in the long white veils and festive 
garb of women. They were loudly welcomed by the half-drunken guests, 
and dispersed themselves with apparent carelessness among the company; 
but as one of the Spartan lords attempted to lift the veil of the person 
who was addressing him, he received a mortal wound. It was the signal 
for a general attack. Swords were drawn from beneath the silken gai- 
ments, and no Spartan left the room alive. The prisons were now opened, 
and five hundred Thebans, who had been immured there for their love 
of freedom, were added to the armed force of the revolutionists. As day 
dawned, all citizens who valued liberty were summoned to the market¬ 
place. A joyful assembly was held, the first since the Spartan usurpa¬ 
tion. The Lacedaemonians in the citadel were besieged, and their ex¬ 
pected reinforcements being cut off, they speedily surrendered. 

231. It was now the depth of winter, but when the news ani\ed at 
Sparta, instant preparations were made for w*ar. Lleombiotus led an 
army into Boeotia, and Athens was called to account for having sheltered 


190 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the exiles. Unable to enter upon war with Sparta, the Athenians con¬ 
sented to sacrifice their two generals who had rendered the most efficient 
aid to the Thebans. One was executed, and the other, having fled, was 
sentenced to banishment. The Thebans feared that they should be left 
to fight single-handed against Sparta. In order to compel Athens to 
take part in the war, they bribed Splio'drias, the Spartan general, to in¬ 
vade her territory. He entered Attica in the night and committed 
various ravages, but retired the next day. The Spartan government dis¬ 
claimed all knowledge of the affair, and brought Sphodrias to trial for 
it; but, through the influence of Agesilaus, he was acquitted. Athens 
immediately made an active alliance with Thebes, and a declaration of 
war against her ancient rival. 


B. C. 378. 


232. A new confederacy was now formed on the plan of that of Delos, 
including, in its most prosperous period, seventy cities. 
Athens was the head, but the independence of the members 
was carefully guarded. A congress at Athens regulated the share of 
each in the general expenses. The fortifications of Piraeus were com¬ 
pleted, new ships of war were built, and all the allies hastened forward 
their contingents of troops. In Thebes, the Sacred Band was formed — 
a heavy-armed battalion, consisting of three hundred chosen citizens of 
the noblest families, bound to each other by ties of the closest friend¬ 
ship. Though Pelopidas was boeotarch, Epaminondas had the most 
prominent share in the drill and discipline of the troops. 

During two summers the army of Agesilaus invaded the country, and 
carried its depredations to the very gates of Thebes. The 
third year the Thebans held the passes of Mount Cithseron, 
and kept out the invaders. The Spartans were no longer suocessful at 
sea. They were thoroughly defeated off Naxos by the Athenians, who 
thus regained their maritime empire in the East; while, in the western 
seas, Corcyra, Cephallenia, and the neighboring tribes on the mainland 
joined the Athenian alliance. The Thebans were no less 
victorious on land. During the two years that they were 
free from Spartan invasion, most of the Boeotian cities submitted to 
their control. In 3/4 B. C., all Spartans were expelled, free governments 


B. C. 378-376. 


B. C. 375. 


were restored to every city, except Orchomenus and Chseronea, and the 
Boeotian League was revived. The Phocians, who had, twenty years 
before, invited the Spartans into central Greece, were now the objects of 
vengeance, and not the less because the treasures of Delphi would be the 
prize of the victor. But Cleombrotus came to the aid of the Phocians 
and the aggression was checked. 

233. The Athenians had now various reasons for enmity against Thebes, 
and messengers were sent to Sparta with proposals of peace. They were 
eagerly accepted ; but the inopportune restoration of the Zacynthian exiles 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


191 


by Timo'theus, son of Conon, at tliis crisis, broke off the negotiations, and 

war was renewed. It was carried on in the western sea, with 

’ B. C. 374. 

great expense and no gain to either party; the main object 
of the Spartans being the conquest of Corcyra, and, of the Athenians, the 
protection of its independence. At length all parties were weary of war, 
and a general congress was appointed at Sparta in the spring of 371. 

234. Peace of Cai/lias. * It was agreed that the Spartan garrisons 
should be withdrawn from every city, and independence secured to all. 
Athens and her allies signed the treaty separately, but Sparta took the 
oaths for the whole Lacedaemonian Confederacy. When the Thebans were 
called upon, Epaminondas refused to sign except for the whole Bceotian 
League, claiming that Thebes was as rightfully the sovereign city of 
Boeotia, as Sparta of Laconia. He defended his view in a speech of great 
eloquence; but Agesilaus was violently incensed. Peace was concluded 
between the other states, but Thebes and Sparta continued at war. 

235. The courage of the Thebans seemed to the rest of the Greeks like 
madness, and it was believed that a very few weeks would see them crushed 
by the overwhelming power of Sparta. But Thebes now possessed the 
greatest general whom Greece ever produced. Knowing his own power, 
and the value of those new tactics which were destined to supersede the 
Spartan system, he revived the drooping confidence of his countrymen, 
reasoned down their evil omens or invented good ones, and by his own 
greatness of soul sustained the spirit of a whole nation. 

236. Battle of Leuc'tra. Cleontbrotus, the Spartan, was already in 

Phocis with a considerable army. He began with energy by c m 

seizing Creusis, on the Crisssean Gulf, with twelve Theban 

vessels which lay in the harbor, thus providing at once a base of sup¬ 
plies and a line of retreat. He then marched along the Gulf of Corinth 
into Boeotia, and encamped upon the plains of Leuctra. Three of the 
seven boeotarchs were so much alarmed as to propose retreating upon 
Thebes, and sending their wives and children for safety to Athens; but 
their plan was overruled. Epaminondas and Pelopidas were alert and 
cheerful. Though outnumbered by the Spartans, they so arranged their 
forces as to be always superior at the actual point of contact, instead ol 
engaging all at once, which had been the uniform method in Grecian war¬ 
fare. The Theban left was a dense column, fifty deep, led by the Sacred 
Band. This was hurled upon the Lacedaemonian right, which contained 
their choicest troops, led by Cleombrotus himself; while the Theban center 
and right, facing the Spartan allies, were kept out of action. The onset of 

*So called from one of the Athenian envoys, who, being hereditary proxenvA 
of Sparta (a term nearly corresponding to our modern consul ), had a leading part 
in the negotiation. His personal character was worthless, and his influence 
slight. 



192 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the Thebans was irresistible. Never had more furious fighting been seen 
on any Grecian battle-field. The Spartans maintained their ancient virtue \ 
but Cleombrotus was mortally wounded, his whole division were driven to 
their camp, and the victory of the Thebans was complete. The allies of 
the Spartans, many of whom were present more through fear than choice, 

scarcely regretted the result of the battle. 

At Sparta the fatal news was not permitted to interrupt the festival then 
in progress. All signs of mourning were forbidden, except on the part of 
those whose relatives had survived the defeat, ihe disaster was, nevei- 
theless, the greatest that had ever befallen Sparta. Her influence was de¬ 
stroyed, even over the Peloponnesian cities. Her dependencies north of 
the Corinthian Gulf were divided between the Thebans and Jason, tyrant 
of Phene, in Thessaly, a man of singular talent and unbounded ambition, 
who aimed at the sovereignty of all Greece. The Thebans had courted his 
alliance, but they began to be alarmed by the extent of his projects, and 
all Greece was relieved when he was assassinated in 370. The Spartan 
sovereignty, which had lasted thirty-four years since the battle of HCgos- 
Potami, now gave way to the Theban Supremacy (B. C. 371-362). 

237. The Mantineans seized the occasion to revenge their former 
wrongs, and besought the aid of Epaminondas. He entered Arcadia with 
an army near the end of the year 370, and was joined by Argives and 
Eleans, who increased his number to 70,000 men. By the entreaties of 
his allies, he marched into Laconia, and advanced upon Sparta itself. 
During all the centuries that the fame of Spartan valor had held Greece 
and Asia in awe, the Spartan women had never seen an enemy in arms, 
and the unwalled city was now filled with terror. But the energy of old 
King Agesilaus was equal to its defense. He repulsed the cavalry of 
Epaminondas, who retired down the valley of the Eurotas, burning and 
plundering as he went, and then returned to Arcadia. 

238. The main objects of his expedition were yet to be fulfilled. A 
union of Arcadian towns had already been formed, which Epaminondas 
wished to organize and strengthen. Lest jealousy should be excited by 
the choice of any existing place as capital of the league, a new city, 
called Megalop'olis, was built, and peopled by colonists from forty towns. 
Here a congress of deputies, called the “Ten Thousand,” was to be reg¬ 
ularly convened; and a standing army of deputies from the various cities 
was also raised. 

231). A still more cherished plan was the restoration of the Messenians. 
For three hundred years this noble race had been fugitive and exiled, 
while its lands were in the possession of the Lacedaemonians. The exiles 
were now recalled, by the letters of Epaminondas, from the shores of Italy, 
Sicily, Africa, and Asia, and eagerly sprang to arms for the recovery of 
their ancient seats. The citadel of Ithome was fortified anew, and the 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


193 


town of Messe'ne, which arose upon the western slope of the mountain, 
was protected by strong walls. The Messenian territories extended south¬ 
ward to the gulf which bore their name, and northward to Elis and 
Arcadia. 

240. Common jealousy of Thebes now led to a closer alliance between 
Athens and Sparta. Their forces were united in guarding the mountain- 
passes of the isthmus, in order to prevent another invasion of the Pelopon¬ 
nesus. Epaminondas, however, broke their line by defeat- 

ing a Spartan division, and Sicyon deserted the Spartan for 
the Theban alliance. The Thebans were, in their turn, defeated in an 
attack upon Corinth, and their enemies were strengthened by a squadron 
which arrived at Lechseum, from Dionysius of Syracuse, bearing two 
thousand auxiliaries from Gaul and Spain. 

241. The Tearless Battle. The Arcadians, meanwhile, rejoicing in 

their newly acquired power, became ambitious to share the 

t 13. C« 368* 

sovereignty with Thebes, as Athens did with Sparta. Under 

their leader, Lycome'des, who had first proposed the league, they gained 
several advantages in the west, and completed the overthrow of the Spartan 
power in the Messenian part of the peninsula. In a later enterprise, they 
were routed, however, with great slaughter by the Spartans, who lost not 
a man in the engagement, and gave it, therefore, the name of the “ Tearless 
Battle.” The Thebans did not mourn this defeat of their allies, which 
had the effect of curbing their pride, and showing their need of protec¬ 
tion from the sovereign state. 

The same year the Thebans, under Pelopidas, organized a league among 
the cities of Thessaly, and formed an alliance with Macedonia. Among 
the hostages sent from the Macedonian court was the young prince, 
Philip, son of Amyntas, now fifteen years of age, who was destined to 
act an important part in the later history of Greece. 

242. In the years 367 and 366, the Thebans obtained from the Persian 
king that sanction of their power which the peace of Antalcidas had 
rendered necessary, or, at least, customary in Greece. Artaxerxes recog¬ 
nized the Hellenic supremacy of Thebes, and the independence of Mes- 
sene and Amphip / olis; decided a dispute between the Arcadians and 
Eleans in favor of the latter, and commanded Athens to reduce her 
navy to a peace footing. This royal rescript naturally provoked a violent 
opposition among the states of Greece; and when Pelopidas visited Ihes- 
saly to obtain compliance with its terms, he was seized and imprisoned 
by Alexander of Phene. The Thebans instantly sent a force to recover 
or avenge their ambassador. But, unhappily, Epaminondas was now de¬ 
graded from command; the army was defeated, and barely escaped total 
destruction. The great general was serving as a private in the ranks; 
he was called by his comrades to be their leader, and conducted them 

A. II.—13. 


194 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


safely home. He then received the command of a second expedition, 
which secured the release of Pelopidas. 

Two years later, Pelopidas himself conducted an army against Alexan¬ 
der, and gained a great victory over him at Cyn'oceplEalse. 

B. C. 363. 

Rage at the sight of his old enemy overcame his prudence, 
and he fell furiously fighting in the midst of Alexander’s guards. The 
Thebans felt more grief at his death than joy in the victory, but they did 
not fail to follow it up with a fresh army, which stripped Alexander of all 
his possessions except the city of Pherae, and established Theban supremacy 
throughout northern Greece. 

243. The war in the Peloponnesus was now varied by an act of sacrilege. 

The Arcadians seized the Sacred Grove at Olympia during the year of the 

» 

festival, expelled the Eleans from their supervision of the games, and in¬ 
stalled the Pisatans in their place. A large army of the Arcadians and 
their allies Avas present to enforce this irregular proceeding. The Eleans 
came up in the midst of the games, supported by their allies, the Achaeans, 
and a battle was fought on the sacred ground. The very temple of Olympic 
Zeus became a fortress, and the gold and ivory statue by Phidias looked 
down upon a scene of unprecedented strife. The treasury of the shrine 
was despoiled by the invaders. Arcadia itself was divided by this impious 
act. The Mantineans refused all share in the spoils, and were on that 
account proclaimed traitors to the league. Peace was at length made 
with Elis, but two parties remained in Arcadia: the Mantineans, in alli¬ 
ance with Sparta; and the Tegeans, with the other towns which favored 
Thebes. Hostilities were frequent, and envoys were sent to Epaminondas 
demanding his intervention. 

244. In the summer of 362 B. C., the great general invaded Pelopon¬ 
nesus for the fourth and last time. At Tegea he was joined by his allies, 
while Agesilaus moved with a Spartan force toward Mantinea. Placed 
thus between the king and his capital, Epaminondas seized the occasion 
to make a sudden attack upon Sparta. Agesilaus heard of it in time to 
return, and though a battle was fought in the very streets of the capital, 
the invader was compelled to retire. With his usual swiftness, Epami¬ 
nondas moved back to surprise Mantinea while the Spartan army was 
withdrawn. The citizens with their slaves were dispersed in the fields, for 
it was the time of harvest; but a troop of Athenian cavalry had just ar¬ 
rived, and, though tired and hungry, they succeeded in repulsing the 
Thebans. 

245. Battle of Mantinea. It was now evident that a great battle 
must take place, and the elevated plain between Tegea and Mantinea, in¬ 
closed on every side by mountains, was the destined field. The Thebans, 
on arriving, laid down their arms, as if preparing to encamp; and the 
Spartans, inferring that they did not mean to fight, dispersed themselves 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


195 


in some confusion. Some were tending their horses, some unbuckling their 
breastplates, when they were surprised by the charge of the deep and heavy 
column of Boeotian troops, which Epaminondas had swiftly put in order for 
attack. The Spartans fought bravely, but under the disadvantage which 
disorder always occasions, they were unable to recover themselves at once. 
Epaminondas seized the moment to lead a band of chosen troops directly 
upon the enemy’s center. The Mantineans and Spartans turned and fled; 
but at this moment the Theban general fell, pierced with a mortal wound. 
His followers stood paralyzed with dismay, unable to pursue and reap the 
advantage he had prepared for them. The Spartans acknowledged them¬ 
selves defeated, by requesting permission to bury their dead, but both 
armies erected trophies of victory. 

246. Epaminondas, with the spear-head in his breast, was carried off the 
held. He first assured himself that the battle was won, then tried to make 
a disposition of his command; but the two generals whom he would have 
chosen were already slain. “ Then make peace,” was his last public com¬ 
mand. The spear-head was now removed, and with the rush of blood 
which followed it, his life passed away. No Greek ever more truly mer¬ 
ited, by character and talent, the title “ Great.” Many of the worthiest 
who succeeded him took him for their model; and even the Christian ages 
have seen none who better fulfilled the description of a brave knight, 
“ without fear and without reproach.” The greatness of Thebes began and 
ended with his public career. After the fatal result of the battle of Man- 
tinea, she fell to her former position. 

247. Peace was made, leaving all parties in the same position as before 
the war. Agesilaus, untamed by his eighty years, sought a field of glory 
beyond the sea. Tachos, king of Egypt, had asked the aid of Sparta in his 
revolt against Persia. Agesilaus went to his assistance, at the head of a 
thousand heavy-armed troops. The appearance of the little, lame old man, 
utterly destitute of the retinue or splendor of a king, excited the ridicule 
of the Egyptians; but when he transferred his aid from Tachos to Nec- 
tai/abis, who had risen against him, the importance of the little Spartan 
was felt, for Nectanabis obtained the throne. Agesilaus did not live to 
bear back to Sparta his honors and rewards. He died on the road to 
Gyrene, and his body, embalmed in wax, was conveyed with B c 3gL 
great pomp to his native city. An ancient oracle had fore¬ 
told that Sparta would lose her power under a lame sovereign. It was now 
fulfilled, but through no fault of the king. Agesilaus had all the virtues 
of his countrymen, without their common faults of avarice and deceit; and 
he added a warmth and tenderness in friendship which Spartans rarely 
possessed. He has been called “Sparta’s most perfect citizen and most 
consummate general, in many ways, perhaps, her greatest man. 

248. The Social War. Athens still maintained her wars in the north; 


196 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


by sea against Alexander of Plierae, and by land against Macedonia and 
the Thracian princes. The second period of Athenian greatness reached 
its height in the year 358, when Euboea, the Chersonesus, and Amphipolis 
were again subdued. In that year a serious revolt, called the Social War, 
was begun by Rhodes, Cos, Chios, and Byzantium. Sestus and other towns 
on the Hellespont joined in the quarrel, and Mauso / lus, king of Caria, sent 
aid to the insurgents. The war was inglorious and exhaustive to Athens. 
To obtain means of paying their sailors, the commanders aided Artabazus 
•in his revolt against Persia, and thereby incurred the vengeance of the 
great king. Athens had to consent to the independence of the four rebel 
states, in order to avoid still greater losses and calamities. During the 
four years that her attention had been thus absorbed, Philip of Macedon 
had been able to grasp all her dependencies on the Thermaic Gulf, and 
thus to extend his power as far as the Peneus. 

249. The Sacred War. During the progress of the Social War, 

another fatal quarrel began in central Greece, through the 

enmity of Thebes and Phocis. Driven to fight for their 
existence, the Phocians seized the sacred treasures at Delphi, which en¬ 
abled them to raise and maintain a large army of mercenaries, and even 
to bribe some of the neighboring states either to aid them or remain 
neutral. Their first general, Philome'lus, was defeated and slain at Titho 7 - 
rea. His brother, Onomar'chus, who succeeded to his command, used the 
Delphian treasures with still less scruple, beside confiscating the property 
of all who opposed him. By these means he conquered Locris and Doris, 
invaded Bceotia, and captured Orchomenus. 

250. Lyc / ophron, tyrant of Pherae, now sought his aid against Philip of 
Macedon, whose increasing power pressed heavily upon Thessaly. PhayPlus, 
who first led a force to the aid of Lycopliron, was defeated; but Onomar- 
chus himself marched into Thessaly, worsted the king in two pitched battles, 
and drove him from the country. He then returned into Bceotia, where he 
captured Coronaea, but was recalled into Thessaly by another invasion of 
B c 352. Philip. This time his fortune changed ; he was defeated, and, 

with many other fugitives, plunged into the sea, hoping to 
reach the Athenian ships which were lying off shore to watch the battle. 
He perished, and his body, falling into the hands of Philip, was crucified 
as a punishment of his sacrilege. 

251. This battle secured the ascendency of Philip in Thessaly. He 
established a more popular government in Pherae, took and garrisoned 
Magnesia, and then advanced upon Thermopylae. The Athenians antici¬ 
pated the danger, and guarded the pass with a strong force. But the 
liberty of Greece was destined to be sacrificed to her. internal dissensions. 
The feacred \V ar had continued eleven years, when the Thebans called in 
the aid of Philip to complete the destruction of Phocis. The Athenians 


HISTORY OF GREECE. 


197 


now remained neutral, and Philip passed Thermopylae without opposition. 
In a short campaign he crushed Phocis, and was admitted as a member of 
the Amphictyonic Council, in the place of the conquered state. 

2o2. Athens was now the only power in Greece capable of opposing the 
Macedonian king, and Athens was no longer possessed of a Miltiades, a 
Conon, or a Themistocles. A great orator, however, had arisen, and when 
Olynthus sent envoys to implore aid against the invader, who 
was now attacking the Chalcidian cities, the eloquence of De- B ' C ' ,m 
mosthenes aioused some taint show ot their former spirit. The attempted 
rescue was defeated, however, by treachery within the walls; and, in 347, 
Olynthus fell. The threefold peninsula was now in the power of Philip, 
and he was able to push his interests throughout Greece rather by intrigue 
than force. Even in Athens a powerful party, sustained by his bribes, 
labored to undermine the efforts of the true patriots, of whom Demosthenes 
was chief. iEs chines was the mouth-piece of the Macedonian party, an 
orator second only to Demosthenes himself, and won to Philip’s side, prob¬ 
ably, more by flatteries than gifts. He constantly urged peace with the 
king, while Demosthenes, as soon as he perceived the extent of Philip’s 
designs, opposed them with all the unsparing vehemence of his nature. 
His Philippics are the most forcible examples in any language of bold 
and eloquent opposition to an unjust usurpation of power. 

253. In 340, war was declared on account of the aggressions of Philip 

on the Bosphorus; and the Second Sacred War, which broke 

. . 5 n . , . „ . . B. C. 339. 

out in the following year, gave him a reason for again passing 

Thermopylae. He was now appointed general-in-chief of the Amphictyonic 

forces, and thus gained a position in the very heart of Greece, which he did 

not fail to use for his own advantage. 

254. The Thebans, in alarm, applied to Athens for aid, which was not 

refused. The armies met in battle at Chaeronea, and the . „ _ 

J Aug. 7, B. C. 338. 

victory of Philip gave the death-blow to Grecian inde¬ 
pendence. All the states except Sparta acknowledged his sovereignty, 
and he was made generalissimo of the Hellenic forces in the war now 
projected against Persia. To overawe the hostility of Sparta, he marched 
through the Peloponnesus to the southern extremity, and returned by the 
western coast, meeting no serious opposition. 

Philip’s death by assassination interrupted the movement against the 
Persians, and for a moment revived the hopes of the patriots; but the 
Macedonian party prevailed under the youthful Alexander, who surpassed 
his father both as general and as king. 

RECAPITIJLATIOlSr. 

Sparta destroyed the Olynthian confederacy, and seized upon Thebes, which 
was rescued after three years by Pelopidas and his fellow exiles. Athens re¬ 
gained her dominion both in the eastern and western seas, while Thebes became 


198 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the head of the new Bceotian League. The treaty of Callias secured peace among 
all the states, except Thebes and Sparta. The victory of Epaminondas over the 
Spartans at Leuctra established the Theban supremacy, which was recognized 
and supported by the Persians during the remaining years of his life. He four 
times invaded Peloponnesus; organized an Arcadian confederacy, with the new 
city, Megalopolis, at its head; restored the exiled Messenians to the lands of their 
ancestors; twice attacked Sparta itself; and, finally, triumphed and fell at Man- 
tinea. Agesilaus died on his return from Egypt, where his aid had secured the 
throne to Nectanabis. Athens declined from her second period of greatness in 
consequence of the Social War, B. C. 357-355. The Pliocians, with the Delphic 
treasures which they confiscated, gained ascendency in central Greece, but lost 
it in war with Philip of Macedon. This king ended the Sacred War (B. C. 357-346) 
by the destruction of Phocis, assumed her place in the Ampliictyonic Council, 
conquered the Chalcidian peninsulas, led the allied forces in the Second Sacred 
War, and by his victory at Chseronea established his supremacy over Greece. 
His son Alexander inherited his civil and military command. 


QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 


Book III. 

1. By what names has Greece been known?.g 8. 

2. What tribes were included among the Hellenes? .9. 

3. What foreigners aided to civilize Greece?.10. 

4. Describe three of the Greek heroes.11-13. 

5. What can be said of the siege of Troy?.14. 

6. What was the state of the country and people in the Heroic Age? 11, 17-20. 

7. Describe the kings.15, 16. 

8. What connections between Greek and Asiatic religions? 21. 

9. Name the twelve Olympian deities.23. 

10. What bearing had Greek belief upon human conduct? .... 25. 

11. What foreign ceremonies were borrowed by the Greeks? . . . 26,27,29. 

12. What is known of the Mysteries?.28. 

13. Describe the oracles. 30-32. 

14. What migrations in Greece, B. C. 1124-1100?. 33, 34. 

15. Describe the Asiatic settlements. . 35-37 , 85, 86. 

16. What political changes at the close of the Heroic Age ? .... 38. 

17. What were the bonds of union among the Greeks? . 39, 42. 

18. Describe the games and the rewards of victors.40, 41, 

19. Recount the history of Argos.43, 

20. What were the condition and government of Sparta, B. C. 900? . . 44-46. 

21. Describe the discipline of Lycurgus. 47-53. 

22 . The wars of Sparta during the Second Period.. 55 - 61 . 

23. What was the character of Spartan influence in Greece? .... 62. 

24. What difference of character between Athenians and Spartans? . . 63. 

25. What changes in Athenian government within 400 years? . . . 64 , 65 . 

26. Describe the laws of Draco and their results. 66, 67. 

27. What political parties in Attica?.68. 

28. What were the character and history of Solon?. 69, 70, 74. 

29. What was the spirit of his laws?.71-73. 

30. Describe the rise of Pisistratus. 7 ^ 















QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 


199 


31. What occurred during liis first tyranny ?.g 76 . 

32. What occasioned his second expulsion ?. 77 , 

33. Describe his third reign. .. 

34. The reign and expulsion of Hippias. 79, 80. 

35. What changes were introduced by Clisthenes? ...... 81. 

36. Who opposed him ?.82. 

37. What dangers threatened Athens at this time?. 83 . 

38. What ceremonies attended the founding of Greek colonies? ... 84. 

39. Describe the colonies in Italy. 87-89. 

40. In Gaul, Sicily, Africa, Thrace.91-94. 

41. Describe the movements of Darius against Greece. 95-97. 

42. The battle of Marathon.. 98, 99. 

43. The fall of Miltiades. 101 102 . 

44. The character and history of Aristides. . . 103, 104, 116, 117, 130, 132. 

45. The character and career of Themistocles. 104-109, 113-117, 130, 136, 138. 

46. The battle of Thermopylae. .111,112. 

47. The battle of Salamis. 117 . 

48. The retreat of Xerxes.118. 

49. The embassy of Alexander. .119, 120. 

50. The condition of Athens.121. 

51. Describe the campaign in Bceotia. 122-126. 

52. The subsequent operations of the Greeks. 128,129. 

53. What changes in the rank and politics of Athens?.130. 

54. Tell the story of Pausanias.131. 

85. Describe the rise of the Delian Confederacy.. . . 132. 

56. The career of Cimon. 133-137,139-142,150. 

57. The causes and events of the Third Messenian War. . . 139, 142, 148. 

58. The history of Pericles. . . . 140, 143, 145, 152-157, 159, 161-165. 

59. Tell the story of the First Peloponnesian War. 143-147. 

60. What occurred at Delphi, B. C. 448 ?.151. 

61. Describe the battle of Coronsea, and its consequences to Athens. . . 152-154. 

62. The Samian revolt. 156, 157. 

63. The war between Corinth and Corcyra.158. 

64. The Theban attack upon Platsea.. . 160. 

65. How was Greece divided in the Peloponnesian War? .... 161. 

66 . What was the condition of Athens during the first two years? . 162-164, 166. 

67. Describe the siege of Platsea. .167. 

68 . The revolt of Mytilene.. 168-170. 

69. The revolution in Corcyra.171. 

70. The condition of Greece in the sixth year of the war. . . 172. 

71. Describe the campaign at Pylos and Sphacteria. 173, 174. 

72. What massacres occurred in the eighth year?.175. 

73. Describe the invasion of Boeotia. .176. 

74. The campaign of Brasidas.177. 

75. How long did the Peace of Nicias continue?. 178, 180, 188. 

76. Describe the career of Alcibiades. .... 179-186, 192-194, 198-200, 202. 

77. The Sicilian expedition..179-191. 

78. What occasioned a revolution in Athens?. 194,195. 

79 . Describe the maritime movements of 411, 410 B. C.. 197-199. 

80. What part was taken by Persia in tlie Peloponnesian War? 192-194, 198, 201, 204. 

81. What occurred at iEgos-Potami?. 205, 206. 

82. What were the results to Athens?.* •• . . 207-209. 

83. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants..210, 211. 

84. The reaction under Thrasybulus..212,213. 

85. The trial and death of Socrates. .214. 



































200 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


86. Describe the war of Sparta against Elis.§ 215. 

87. Agesilaus, and his Asiatic campaign. .216,217. 

88. The death of Lysander, and retirement of Pausanias. . 218. 

89. The three great battles of 394 B. C. . 219-221. 

90. Who restored the walls of Athens?. 222. 

91. Describe the last two years of the Corinthian War. .... 223. 

92. What were the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas ?. 226. 

93. What occurred at Thebes, from 382 to 379 B. C. ? . . . . 227, 229, 230. 

94. Describe the war in Boeotia and the western seas. 232. 

95. 'i’he treaty of Callias.. 233, 234. 

96. The character and tactics of Epaminondas. . 229, 235-240, 244-246. 

97. The consequences to Sparta of the battle of Leuctra. . . 236. 

98. The restoration of the Messenians. 239. 

99. The ambition of the Arcadians.241. 

100. The intervention of the Persians.. 242. 

101. The plunder of Olympia. . 243. 

102. The last campaign of Agesilaus. 247. 

103. The second period of Athenian greatness, and Social War. 248. 

104. The Sacred War. . 249. 

105. The advance of Philip of Macedon. 250, 251. 

106. Demosthenes and his Philippics . 252. 

107. The results of the battle of Chseronea.. 254. 

108 . Who succeeded Philip as head of the Grecian armies? . . . , 254. 

109. How long was Athens the leading state of Greece? 

110. What two periods of Spartan supremacy ? 

111. Length of the Theban supremacy ? 

112. What was an Olympiad ?.. 40. 















BOOK IV. 


History of the Macedonian Empire and the Kingdoms 

FORMED FROM IT, UNTIL THEIR CONQUEST BY THE ROMANS. 

First Period. From the Rise of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander 

the Great, about B. C. 700-323. 

1. The Kingdom of Macedon, lying north of Thessaly and east of 
Illyr'icum, was of little importance before the reign of Philip II., whose 
aggressions ended the independent history of Greece. (See Book III, 
$$ 248-254.) In 507 B. C., Amyntas I. submitted to Darius Hvstaspes; 
and fifteen years later, in the first expedition of Mardonius, the country 
became a mere province of the Persian empire, the native kings governing 
as tributaries. After Xerxes’ retreat, B. C. 480, Macedonia became free 
again, and began to push eastward along the northern coast of the iEgean. 
Here it met two rivals: the new Thracian kingdom of Sitalces upon its 
eastern frontier, and the Athenian power in the Greek cities of the Chal- 
cidian peninsulas. 

2. When Athens was prostrated by her Sicilian disasters, the short but 
brilliant reign of Ar'chela'us I. (B. C. 413-399) laid the foundation of 
Macedonian greatness. He improved his country by roads, strengthened 
it by forts, and introduced a better discipline into the army. His death 
was followed by forty years of great tumult, a continued scene of plots 
and assassinations, to recount which would only confuse without profiting 
the student. When Perdiccas III. died in battle, he left an infant son, 
Amyntas, under the regency of his brother Philip. At least five other 
princes claimed the crown; the victorious Illyrians occupied the western 
provinces, and Thrace and Paeo'nia were ready to absorb the eastern. 

3. Philip overcame all these perils with admirable spirit and ability. 
He made himself king instead of his nephew, defeated the Illyrians, and 
took advantage of the Social War to seize Amphipolis, Pydna, and Potidaea. 
He pushed the Macedonian boundary eastward as far as the Nestus, and 
built the town of Philip'pi for the protection of the gold mines. These 

( 201 ) 



202 


A NCI EM' II 1ST OR Y. 


had fallen into neglect during the wars of Athens, but under his improved 
management they soon yielded a yearly revenue of a thousand talents 
($1,250,000). 

4. Philip, in his youth, had spent three years in Thebes, where he had 
studied the tactics of Epaminondas, as well as the language, character, and 
politics of the Greeks. On coming to power, lie devoted unwearied atten¬ 
tion to the drilling of his army, until it far surpassed that of any Hellenic 
state. No less skilled in diplomacy than in military science, he knew how 
to take advantage of the rivalries in Greece, and the corruptibility of all 
parties, to play off one against the other, and so render himself supreme. 
His rapid movements made him seem to be in many places at the same 
moment, and no circumstance which either threatened or favored his 
interests escaped his eye. 

5. The Olynthian War ended with the capture of thirty-two cities in 
Chalcidice; the Sacred War made Philip master of Phocis and head of the 
Amphictyonic League. In eastern Thrace, the Athenians found aid in the 
Persians, who were already alarmed by the rapid rise of the Macedonian 
power, and PeriiPthus and Byzantium were thus saved for a time. Philip 
was victorious (B. C. 339) against a Scythian prince of what is now Bul¬ 
garia; and though he was defeated and wounded on his return, in a battle 
with the Triballi, his plots went on with uninterrupted success. The 
Second Sacred War gave him supremacy in central Greece, and the 
victory at Chseronea prostrated all remaining opposition. The Congress 
at Corinth (B. C. 337) acknowledged his headship, and appointed him to 
lead the Greek forces against Persia. The advanced guard of the Macedo¬ 
nian army was already in Asia, when Philip was assassinated, during the 
festivities attending the marriage of his daughter, B. C. 336. 

6. In the midst of Philip’s early victories, he had heard of the birth of 
his son Alexander at Pella. He wrote immediately to his friend Ar 7 - 
istot 7 le, * expressing his joy that the young prince was born during the 
life of the philosopher to whom he could most gladly commit his education. 
On the same day that Alexander was born, the temple of Artemis at Eph¬ 
esus was burnt to the ground. The priests and soothsayers, regarding the 
fire as an evil omen, ran about the city beating their breasts and crying 


* Aristotle was a native of Stagi'ra, a Chalcidian sea-port. His father had been 
physician to Amyntas II., the father of Philip; and the prince and the philoso¬ 
pher in their boyhood formed a friendship, which outlasted the life of the former 
and was inherited by his son. The enlarged political views of Alexander, his fond¬ 
ness for discovery and physical science, his lively interest in literature, especially 
the poems of Homer, and his love of the noble and great in character, were 
largely due to his teacher’s influence. When he became the conqueror of Asia, 
he caused rare collections of plants and animals, from all his provinces, to be 
sent to Aristotle, who found in them the materials for valuable works on 
Natural History. 



THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


203 



aloud, “This day has brought forth the scourge and destroyer of Asia.” 
B. C. 356. 

7. At the age of sixteen, Alexander was left regent of the kingdom 
during his father’s campaign against Byzantium. At Chaeronea, two years 
later, he led a corps of Macedonian youth against the Sacred Band of 
Thebes, and the victory was mainly due to his courage and impetuosity. 
Upon the death of his father, Alexander, at twenty years of age, ascended 
a throne beset with many dangers. He expelled or killed his nearest 
rivals, marched into Greece and convened 

at Corinth a new congress, which conferred 
upon him the same dignities and powers 
previously granted to his father; then in¬ 
stantly returning to Macedon, he signally 
defeated his enemies on the west and north, 
some of whom he pursued even beyond the 
Danube. During these campaigns a false 
report of his death reached Greece, and 
Thebes seized the occasion to revolt. But 
Alexander appeared suddenly before her 
gates, stormed and took the city, which, by 
way of warning to others, he completely de¬ 
stroyed— saving only the house of Pindar, 
the poet—and either enslaved or massacred 
the inhabitants. 

8. Greece was now awed into submission, 
and Alexander prepared to execute his 
father’s and his own schemes of Asiatic 
conquest. In the spring of 334 B. C., he 
crossed the Hellespont with 35,000 men. 

The Persians awaiting him at the Granicus 
were defeated, and Alexander, with his usual 

celerity, overran Asia Minor, which submitted with little opposition. 
Memnon, a Rhodian Greek in the service of Darius, and his greatest 
general, desired to carry the war into Macedonia, by means of the over¬ 
whelming fleet of the Persians. His movements detained Alexander some 
months near the iEgean coast; but his death, in the spring of 333 B. C., 
left the invader free to march toward the heart of the empire. Darius led 
a vast army to the plain of the Orontes, where he might have had the ad¬ 
vantage over his assailant; but Alexander lingered in the Cilician mountain 
passes, until the Persian king was impatient and came to meet him. The 
battle of Issus (B. C. 333, Nov.) resulted in the defeat of the Persians with 
great slaughter. 

9. Instead of following Darius, Alexander proceeded to conquer the sea- 



Coin of Alexander, enlarged 
one-half. 


































































































204 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


coast of the Mediterranean as far as Egypt, thus providing for the security 
of Macedon and Greece. Most of the Phoenician cities submitted as he 
approached, but Tyre withstood him seven months. When it was taken 
(B. C. 332, July), 8,000 of its people were massacred and 30,000 sold into 
slavery. Ga'za was captured after a siege of two months. According to 
Josephus, the conqueror then marched upon Jerusalem. The high priest, 
Jad / dua, came forth to meet him, wearing the breastplate of precious stones 
and the miter inscribed with the Holy Name. Alexander prostrated him¬ 
self with profound reverence before the priest, and explained to his follow¬ 
ers that in a vision, before leaving Europe, he had seen such a figure, 
which had invited him to the conquest of Asia. The high priest pointed 
out to him the prophecies of Daniel concerning his career; and Alexander, 
in adding the Jews to his empire, exempted them from tribute every sev¬ 
enth year, when, according to their law, they could neither sow nor reap. 

10. In Egypt the Macedonian king was gladly welcomed, for the people 
hated the Persians for having insulted their gods and profaned their tem¬ 
ples. At the western mouth of the Nile he founded a new capital, which 
he designed as the commercial exchange of the eastern and western worlds. 
Alexandria, with its great advantages of position, soon became a rich and 
magnificent city. A less judicious proceeding of the conqueror was a toil¬ 
some march across the desert to the temple of Amun. He was rewarded, 
however, in being saluted by the priests as the son of the god, a distinction 
which Alexander greatly valued. 

11. Turning to the north and east, Alexander now sought the grand 
contest which was to transfer to him the dominions of Cyrus. He had 
purposely given Darius time to collect the entire force of his empire, so 
that one battle might decide its fate. The battle of Arbela (B. C. 331, Oct.) 
has been described in Book II. As its result the three capitals, Susa, Per- 
sep'olis, and Babylon, surrendered almost without resistance; and Alexander 
might, without further effort, have assumed the pomp and ease of an Ori¬ 
ental monarch. But his restless spirit carried him on to the conquest of 
the eastern provinces and India. He first marched into Media, where 
Darius had rallied the remnants of his forces to oppose him, but on his 
approach the dethroned king fled through the Caspian Gates to Bactria. 
Before Alexander could overtake him, he was murdered by his rebellious 
satrap, Bessus, who assumed the title of king of Persia. 

12. The Greek mercenaries of Darius, who had formed his most effective 
force, were now added to the army of the conqueror. From province to 
province Alexander marched, receiving submission and organizing govern¬ 
ments. Bessus fled into Sogdiana, but was taken, and suffered a cruel death 
for his treason and usurpation. A new city of Alexandria was founded on 
the Jaxartes; and having chastised the Scythians to the northward, the con¬ 
queror returned to Bactria, where he spent the winter of 329 B. C. 


the MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


205 


13. lhe genius of Alexander began to be disgraced by the pride and 
unscrupulous cruelty of an Eastern king. He adopted the Persian dress 
and ceremonial, and required his courtiers to prostrate themselves before 
him, as to a divinity rather than a mortal. He had already put to death 
his friend Philo'tas, on an unproved charge of plotting against his life; and 
the aged Parme / nio, father of Philotas, was subjected without trial to a 
similar fate. At Bactra, in a drunken revel, Alexander murdered his 
friend Clitus with his own hand. 

11. During his two years’ war against Sogdiana, Alexander captured a 
mountain fortress, where OxyaPtes, a Bactrian prince, had deposited his 
family. Roxa / na, one of the princesses, became the wife of the conqueror. 
In the spring of 327 B. C., the Macedonian army crossed the Indus and 
invaded the Punjab. No resistance was encountered until it reached the 
Hydas'pes, where Porus, an Indian king, was drawn up with his elephants 
and a formidable body of men. An obstinate battle resulted in the defeat 
and capture of Porus; but his brave spirit so commanded the respect of 
his conqueror, that he was permitted to retain his kingdom. 

Alexander founded two cities near the Hydaspes, one named BuceplPala, 
in honor of his favorite horse, which died there, and the other, Nicje'a, in 
commemoration of his victories. He gave orders for the building of a fleet, 
from the Indian forests, while he advanced with his army still farther to 
the eastward. All the tribes as far as the Hypha'sis (Sutlej) were con¬ 
quered, one by one. On arriving at that river, the Macedonians refused to 
go farther. They declared that they had more than fulfilled the terms of 
their enlistment, and that they were worn out by the hardships of eight 
unprecedented campaigns. 

15. Alexander was compelled to turn back. His fleet was now ready, 
and he descended the Hydaspes to the Indus, in the autumn and winter 
of 327 B. C. His army marched in two columns along the banks, the 
entire valley submitting with little resistance. Two more cities were 
founded, and left with Greek garrisons and governors. Arriving at the 
Indian Ocean, NeaPchus was sent with the fleet to the Persian Gulf, 
while Alexander returned by land. His march through Gedn/sia was the 
most severe of all his operations, the army suffering for the want of food 
and water. At Pura he obtained supplies, and proceeded through Kerman 
to Pasargadae, and thence to Persepolis. Arriving at Susa in the spring 
of 325 B. C., he allowed his army some months of needed rest, while he 
began to organize the vast empire which he had so rapidly built up. 

10. Desiring to unite his eastern and western dominions by every bond 
of sympathy and common interest, he assigned to eighty of his officers 
Asiatic wives with rich dowries. He had himself set the example by 
taking for his second wife BarsPne, daughter of Darius III.; and when 
ten thousand of the soldiery married Asiatic women, he gave presents to 


206 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


them all. Twenty thousand Persians were received into the army, and 
drilled in Macedonian tactics; while Persian satraps were placed over 
several provinces, and the court was equally composed of Asiatics and 
Europeans. Some of Alexander’s veterans, seeing the conquered nations 
placed on a level with themselves, broke into open mutiny. He silenced 
their complaints with great address, and then sent 10,000 of them home. 

17. Unlike most conquerors, Alexander improved the countries which 
he had won by arms. Rivers were cleared from obstructions, commerce 
revived, and western enterprise took the place of Asiatic indolence and 
poverty. The Greek language and literature were planted every-where: 
every new exploration added to the treasures of science and the enlight¬ 
enment of the human race. On his march from Ecbatana to Babylon, 
Alexander was met by embassadors from almost every part of the known 
world, who came to offer either submission or friendship. 

18. He designed to conquer first Arabia, then Italy, Carthage, and the 
West, extending his empire from the Indus to the Pillars of Hercules. 
Babylon was to be his capital; and Alexander descended the river, to 
inspect in person the improvement of the canals which distributed water 
over the plain. But his magnificent schemes were cut short from their 
accomplishment by his early death. On his return from visiting the 
canals, he found the Arabian expedition nearly ready to sail, and he 
celebrated the occasion by a banquet to Nearclius and the chief officers. 
In the midst of the subsequent preparations, the king was attacked by a 
fever, occasioned by his exertions among the marshes, and aggravated, 
perhaps, by the wine he had taken at the festival. After an illness of 
eleven days he died, at the age of thirty-two, having reigned twelve years 
and eight months. 

BECAPITULATIOIT. 

Macedonia rose to greatness under Arclielaus (B. C. 413-399); was greatly in. 
creased by Philip II. (B. C. 359-336), who became master of Greece. Alexander, 
trained in his youth to war and diplomacy, began his reign at twenty; led a 
Greek army into Asia; defeated the Persians at the Granicus and at Issus; con¬ 
quered Phoenicia, Syria, and Egypt; founded Alexandria on the Nile; gained a 
decisive victory over Darius at Arbela, B. C. 331; subdued the eastern and northern 
provinces of the empire; founded cities in western India; explored its rivers and 
coasts in the interest of science; planned the amalgamation of Europe and Asia, 
and the extension of his empire westward to the Atlantic; died B. C. 323. 

Second Period. From the Death of Alexander to the Rattle of Ipsus , 

B. C. 323-301. 

It). Alexander named no successor, but shortly before his death he gave 
his ring to Perdiccas. This general, as prime minister, kept the empire 
united for two years in the royal family. An infant prince, Alexander 
IV., born after his father’s death, was associated on the throne with 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


207 


Philip Arrhidse'us, half-brother of the great Alexander. Four regents or 
guardians of the empire were appointed — two in Europe and two in Asia. 
One of these was murdered by Perdiccas, who thus acquired for himself 
the sole administration of Asia, Antipater and CraFerus ruling west of the 
Bosphorus. 

The provinces not already bestowed by the conqueror were divided 
among ten of his generals, who were expected to govern in the name and 
for the benefit of the two kings. Finding it impossible, however, either 
by management or force, to keep these lieutenants in subjection to the 
mere name of royalty, Perdiccas formed a plan to seize the sovereignty for 
himself. Eu'menes was on his side, while his colleagues in the regency, 
and the two great provincial governors, PtoFemy and Antig'onus, were his 
most powerful opponents. In a campaign against Ptolemy, in Egypt, 
Perdiccas was slain by his own mutinous soldiers. Craterus fell in a 
battle with Eumenes, in Cappadocia, and the sole regency devolved upon 
Antip'ater. This general defeated the schemes of Euryd / ice — niece of 
Alexander the Great, and wife of the imbecile king, Philip Arrhidseus — 
who even harangued the army at Tripar'adFsus, in Syria, demanding to be 
admitted to a share in the government. A fresh division and assignment 
of the provinces was now made. Antigonus was charged with the prose¬ 
cution of the war against Eumenes, in which he made himself master of 
the greater part of Asia Minor. 

20. Antipater died in Macedon, B. C. 319, leaving the regency, not to 
his son Cassan'der, but to his friend Polysper'chon. Cassander, in disgust, 
fled to Antigonus; and in the war which followed, these two, with Ptolemy, 
sought the disruption of the empire, while Eumenes and Polysperchon 
fought for its unity. Eumenes collected a force in Cilicia, with which he 
meant to conquer Syria and Phoenicia, and thus gain command of the sea. 
Antigonus first defeated a royal fleet near Byzantium, and then marched 
across the country to the borders of Syria, and pursued Eumenes inland 
beyond the Tigris. A number of the eastern satraps here joined Eumenes, 
but after two indecisive battles he was seized by his own troops and given 
up to Antigonus, who put him to death, B. C. 316. 

21. In Macedonia, the mock king, Philip Arrhidseus, and his wife were 
executed, by order of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great. 
But this imperious princess was captured, in her turn, at Pydna; and, in 
violation of the terms of her surrender, was murdered by her enemies. 
Cassander became master of Macedonia and Greece. He married Thes'- 
salonFca, half-sister of the Conqueror, and founded in her honor the city 
which bears her name, B. C. 316. 

22. The ambition of Antigonus now began to alarm his colleagues, for 
he was evidently not to be satisfied with less than the entire dominion of 
Alexander. He gave away the eastern satrapies according to his pleasure. 


208 


AX Cl ENT HISTORY. 


From Babylonia he drove Seleu'cus, who took refuge with Ptolemy in 
Egypt, and formed a league with Cassander, Lysim'achus, and Asander. 
A war of four years followed (B. C. 315-311), which resulted in the re¬ 
establishment of Seleucus in Babylon and the East, while Antigonus 
gained power in Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor. r lhe peace of B. C. 311 
provided for the independence of the Greek cities, but allowed each 
general to keep what he had gained, and left Cassander regent of Mace¬ 
donia until Alexander IV. should be of age. It was probably understood 
between the contracting parties that this last event was never to occur. 
The young king and his mother were murdered, by order of Cassander. 

23. At the end of a year, Ptolemy broke the peace, on the pretense that 
Antigonus had not liberated the Greek cities ot Asia Minor. He was 
opposed in Cilicia by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, who gained in this 
war the title of Po'liorce'tes, the Besieger. Ptolemy, entering Greece, 
seized Sicyon and Corinth, and aimed to marry Cleopatra, the last sur¬ 
vivor of the royal house of Macedon; but the princess was assassinated, 
by order of Cassander, B. C. 308. Demetrius now arriving with a fleet 
to the relief of Athens, Ptolemy withdrew to Cyprus, and gained pos¬ 
session of the island. A great battle followed off Salamis, one of the 
most severe in the world’s history. Ptolemy was defeated, with the loss 
of all but eight of his ships, leaving 17,000 prisoners in the hands of the 
enemy. 

24. The five principal generals now assumed the kingly title. Deme¬ 
trius spent a year in the siege of Rhodes, which, by its brave and mem¬ 
orable defense, secured the privileges of a neutral in the remaining years 
of the war. Returning to Greece, he assembled a congress at Corinth, 
which conferred upon him the titles formerly bestowed on Philip and 
Alexander, and then marched northward against the regent, or, rather, 
king of Macedon. Alarmed at his endangered position, Cassander stirred 
up his allies to invade Asia Minor. 

25. The decisive battle took place, B. C. 301, at Ipsus, in Phrygia. 
Demetrius had arrived from Europe to the assistance of his father; but 
Seleucus, with the forces of the East, including 480 Indian elephants, 
increased the army of Lysimachus. Antigonus, in his eighty-first year, 
was slain ; Demetrius, completely defeated, took refuge in Greece, but 
was not permitted to enter Athens. The two conquerors, Seleucus and 
Lysimachus, divided the dominions of Alexander, with due regard to their 
own interests Seleucus received the Euphrates Valley, Upper Syria, 
Cappadocia, and part of Phrygia. Lysimachus added the rest of Asia 
Minor to his Thracian dominion, which extended along the western 
shores of the Euxine as far as the mouths of the Danube; Ptolemy 
retained Egypt, and Cassander continued to reign in Macedonia until 
his death. 



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MACEDONIANS 


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THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


209 


26. The results of the twenty years’ war were disastrous to Greece and 
Macedonia, not only by the exhausting expenditure of blood and treasure, 
but by the introduction of Oriental habits of luxury and unmanly servility, 
in place of the free and simple manners of former times. Though the 

0 minds of the Greeks were enlarged by a knowledge of the history and 
philosophy of the Eastern nations, and by observation of the natural 
world and its productions in new climates and circumstances, yet most of 
the influences which had kept alive the free spirit of the people had ceased 
to work. Patriotism was dead; learning took the place of genius; and 
imitation, the place of art. 

27. At the same time, Asia had gained many splendid cities, her com¬ 
merce had vastly increased, and the Greek military discipline and forms 
of civil government gave new strength to her armies and states.. From 
the Indus to the Adriatic, and from the Crimea to the southern bounds of 
Egypt, the Greek language prevailed, at least among the educated and 
ruling classes. In Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, the influence of Hellenic 
thought continued a thousand years in full force, until Mahomet and his 
successors set up their new Semitic empire. The wide diffusion of the 
Greek language in western Asia was among the most important prepara¬ 
tions for the spread of Christianity. If Alexander had lived to complete 
his great scheme of interfusing the eastern and western races, Asia would 
have gained and Europe lost in still greater measure. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Perdiccas became vizier, Philip Arrhidseus and Alexander IV being nominally 
kings. Wars of the generals for the division of the empire, B. C. 321-316; 315-311; 
310-301. Murder of the two kings, 316, 311. Battle of Salamis in Cyprus, 306. The 
decisive combat at Ipsus gave Syria and the East to Seleucus; Egypt, to Ptolemy; 
Thrace, to Lysimachus; Macedonia, to Cassander. 

Third Period. History of the Several Kingdoms into which Alexander’s 

Empire was divided. 

I. The Syrian Kingdom of the Seleu'cid^:. B. C. 312-65. 

28. After the restoration of Seleucus to the government of Babylonia 
(see £ 22), he extended his power over all the provinces between the Eu¬ 
phrates and the Indus. He even made war against an Indian kingdom 
upon the western headwaters of the Ganges, gaining thereby a great ex¬ 
tension of commerce, and the addition of five hundred elephants to his 
army. The battle of Ipsus added to his dominions the country as far west 
as the Mediterranean and the center of Phrygia, making his kingdom by 
far the greatest that had been formed from the fragments of Alexander’s 
empire. 

This vast dominion was organized by Seleucus with great skill and 
A. II.—14. 


210 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


energy. In each of the seventy-two provinces new cities sprang up, as 
monuments of his power and centers of Greek civilization. Sixteen of 
these were named Antioch, in honor of his father; five Laodice'a, for his 
mother, Laod'ice; seven for himself, SeFeucPa; and several for his two 
wives, Apame'a and Stratoni'ce. To watch more effectually the move¬ 
ments of his rivals, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, he removed the seat of gov¬ 
ernment from the Euphrates to his new capital, Antioch, on the Orontes, 
which continued nearly a thousand years to be one of the richest and 
most populous cities in the world. 

29. In 293 B. C., Seleucus divided his empire with his son AntPochus, 

giving the younger prince all the provinces 
east of the Euphrates. Demetrius Poliorce- 
tes, after gaining and then losing Macedonia, 
sought to make for himself a new kingdom 
in Asia, out of the possessions of Lysimachus 
and Seleucus. He was defeated by the latter, 
and remained a prisoner the rest of his life. 

30. Lysimachus, king of Thrace, under 
the influence of his Egyptian wife and her 
brother, Ptolemy Cerau'nus, had alienated 
the hearts of his subjects by the murder of 
his son. The widow of the murdered prince 
fled for protection to the court of Seleucus, 
who undertook her cause and invaded the 
territories of Lysimachus. The two aged 
kings were now the only survivors of the 
companions and generals of Alexander. In 
the battle of Corupe / dion, B. C. 281, Lysim¬ 
achus was slain, and all his Asiatic domin¬ 
ions were transferred to Seleucus. The em¬ 
pire of Alexander seemed about to be united 
in the hands of one man. Before crossing 
the Hellespont to seize the European prov¬ 
inces, the Syrian king committed the government of his present dominion 
to his son, Antiochus. Then passing the strait, he advanced to Lys'ima- 
chPa, the capital of his late enemy; but here he was killed by the hand 
of Ptolemy Ceraunus, B. C. 280. Thrace and Macedonia became the prize 
of the murderer. 

31. Antiochus I. (Soter) inherited the Asiatic dominions of his father, 
and made war in Asia Minor against the native kings of Bithynia. One 
of these, Nicomedes, called to his assistance the Gauls, who were rav¬ 
aging eastern Europe, and rewarded their services with a large territory 
in northern Phrygia, which was thence called Gala'tia. North-western 



Coin of Antioch, twice the 
size of the original. 
















































































































THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE . 


211 


Lydia was also wrested from Antiochus, and formed the kingdom of PeP- 
gamus. From his only important victory over the Gauls, B. C. 275, the 
Syrian king derived his title Soter (the Deliverer); but his operations were 
usually unsuccessful, and his kingdom was much reduced both in wealth 
and power during his reign. He was defeated and slain near Ephesus, in 
a battle with the Gauls, B. C. 261. 

32. Antiochus II. bore the blasphemous title of Theos (the God), but 
he showed himself less than a man by the weakness and licentiousness of 
his reign. He abandoned all affairs to worthless favorites, who were 
neither feared nor respected in the distant provinces, and two independent 
kingdoms sprang up unchecked in Parthia and Bactria, B. C. 255. The 
influence of his wife, Laodice, involved him in a war with Egypt. It was 
ended by the divorce of Laodice, and the marriage of Antiochus with 
BePenFce, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 260-252). On the 
death of Philadelphus, Antiochus sent away Berenice and took back 
Laodice ; but she, doubting his constancy, murdered him to secure the 
kingdom for her son, Seleucus. Berenice and her infant son were also put 
to death. 

33. Seleucus II. (CallinFcus) was first engaged in war with the king of 
Egypt, Ptolemy Euer / getes, who came to avenge the deaths of his sister 
and nephew. With the exception of part of Lydia and Phrygia, all Asia 
west of the Tigris, and even Susiana, Media, and Persia, submitted to the 
invader; but the severity of his exactions excited discontent, and a revolt 
in Egypt called him home, whereupon Callinicus regained his territories. 
Antiochus Hi'erax (the Hawk), a younger brother of the king, revolted at 
fourteen years of age, with the assistance of his uncle and a troop of Gauls. 
At the same time, Arsa'ces II., the Parthian king, gained great advantages 
in Upper Asia, and signally defeated Callinicus (B. C. 237), who led an 
expedition in person against him. The war between the brothers ended, 
B. C. 229, in the defeat of the rebellious prince. Seleucus died by a fall 
from his horse, B. C. 226. 

Seleucus III. (Ceraunus) reigned only three years. In the midst of an 
expedition against Attalus, king of Pergamus, he was killed in a mutiny 
by some of his own officers. 

34. Antiochus III., the Great, had an eventful reign of thirty-six 
years. Molo, his general, first revolted, and made himself master, one by 
one, of the countries east of the Euphrates, destroying all the armies sent 
against him. Antiochus at length defeated him, B. C. 220, and then made 
war upon Egypt for the recovery of Syria and Palestine, which had hith¬ 
erto been held by Ptolemy. He was successful at first, but his defeat at 
Kaph'ia robbed him of all his conquests, except Seleucia in Syria. Achae'us, 
his cousin, and hitherto a faithful servant of Antiochus and his father, had 
meanwhile been driven into revolt by the false accusations of HermFas, 


212 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the prime minister. He subjected to his control all the countries west of 
the Taurus. As soon as peace had been made with Egypt, the king of 
Syria marched against him, deprived him of all his possessions in one 
campaign, besieged him two years in Sardis, and finally captured and put 
him to death. 

35. The Parthian king, Arsaces III., had taken up arms against Media. 
Antiochus led an army across the desert to Hecatom'pylos, the Parthian 
capital, which he captured; but the battle which followed was indecisive, 
and Arsaces remained independent, with the possession of Parthia and 
Hyrcania. The war against the Bactrian monarch had a similar result, 
Euthyde / mus retaining Bactria and Sogdiana. Antiochus penetrated India, 
and renewed the old alliance of Seleucus Nicator with the king of the uppe* 
Ganges. Wintering in Kerma'nia, the Syrian king made a naval expedi¬ 
tion, the next year, against the piratical Arabs of the western shores of the- 
Persian Gulf. On his return from his seven years’ absence in the East,. 
Antiochus received the title of “ Great,” by which he is known in history. 

36. The same year, B. C. 205, Ptolemy EpiplPanes, a child of five years, 
succeeded his father in Egypt. Tempted by the unprotected state of the 
kingdom, Antiochus made a treaty with Philip of Macedon to divide the 
dominions of Ptolemy between them. Philip’s designs were interrupted 
by a war with Rome, the now powerful republic of the West. Antiochus 
carried on the contest with great energy, but with varying success, in 
Ccele-Syria and Palestine. By the decisive battle of Pa / neas, B. C. 198, he 
gained complete possession of those provinces; but desiring to prosecute his 
wars in another direction, he married his daughter Cleopatra to the young 
king of Egypt, and promised the conquered country as her dower. 

37. He then overran Asia Minor, and crossing the Hellespont, seized the 
Thracian Chersonesus. The Romans, who had conquered Philip and were 
guardians of Ptolemy, now sent an embassy to Antiochus, requiring him 
to surrender all his conquests of territory belonging to either prince, 
B. C. 196. Antiochus indignantly rejected their interference, and pre¬ 
pared for war, with the aid of their great enemy, Hannibal, who had taken 
refuge at his court. In 192 B. C., he crossed into Greece and captured 
Chalcis; but he was signally defeated soon after by the Romans, at Ther- 
mopylm, and compelled to withdraw from Europe. They followed him 
across the sea, and by two naval victories gained the western coast of Asia 
Minor. The two Scq/ios crossed the Hellespont and defeated Antiochus 
a fourth time, near Magnesia, in Lydia. He obtained peace only by sur¬ 
rendering all Asia Minor except Cilicia, with his navy and all his ele¬ 
phants, and by paying an enormous war indemnity. Twenty hostages 
were given for the payment, among whom was Antiochus Epiphanes, the 
king’s son. The king of Pergamus received the ceded provinces, and 
became a most formidable rival to Syria. To meet his engagements with 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


213 


the Romans, Antiockus plundered the temples of Asia, and in a commotion 
excited by this means in Elyma'is, he lost his life. 

38. Seleucus IV. (Pkilop'ator) had a reign of eleven years, unmarked 
by important events. The kingdom was exhausted, and the Romans were 
ready to seize any exposed province at the least hostile movement of the 
Syrians. Heliodo / rus, the treasurer, at length murdered his master and 
assumed the crown ; but his usurpation was cut short by the arrival of An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, brother of the late king, who with the aid of Eumenes, 
king of Pergamus, established himself upon the throne. 

39. Antiockus IV. had been thirteen years a hostage at Rome, and 
surprised his people by the Roman customs which he introduced. He 
made a four years’ war against Egypt, and had nearly conquered the 
country when the Romans interfered, and commanded him to give up 
all his conquests. He was forced to obey, but he vented his rage upon 
the Jews, whose temple he plundered and desecrated. They sprang to 
arms, under the leadership of MaPtathPas, the priest, and his brave son, 
Judas Maccabae'us, and defeated the army sent to subdue them. Anti- 
ochus, who was now in the East, set forth in person to avenge this insult 
to his authority. On his way, he attempted to plunder the temple at 
Elymais, and was seized with a furious insanity, in which he died. 
Both Jews and Greeks believed his madness to be a judgment for his 
sacrilege. 

40. Antiockus V. (Eu'pator), a boy of twelve years, came to the throne 
under the control of Lysias, the regent. But his father, when dying, had 
appointed him another guardian in the person of Philip, who returned to 
Antioch bearing the royal signet, while the young king and his minister 
were absent in Judaea. Lysias, on hearing this, hastened to make peace 
with Judas Maccabseus, and turned back to fight with Philip, whom he 
defeated and put to death. The Parthians, meanwhile, were overrunning 
the kingdom on the east; and the Romans, on the west, were harshly 
enforcing the terms of the treaty made by Antiockus the Great. Deme¬ 
trius, the son of Seleucus Philopator, now escaped from Rome, and 
gained possession of the kingdom, after ordering the execution of both 
Eupator and his guardian. 

41. Demetrius I. spent some years in vain attempts to put down the 
Jewish rebellion. His armies were defeated by Judas Maccabaeus, and 
the Romans entered into alliance with Judaea, which they now declared 
an independent kingdom. The Syrian king was no more successful in 
Cappadocia; and in Babylon, the satrap whom he had deposed set up 
an impostor, Alexander Balas, who claimed to be a son of Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Aided by the forces of Rome, Pergamus, Cappadocia, Egypt, 
and Judaea, this man conquered Demetrius and kept the kingdom five 


years. 


214 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


42. Alexander Balas proved unworthy of a crown, by leaving public 
affairs in the weak and incompetent hands of his favorite, Ammo'nius,. 
while he abandoned himself to indolence and luxury. Demetrius Nica'tor, 
eldest son of the former king, encouraged by the contempt of the Syrians 
for the licentiousness of Alexander, landed in Cilicia and made war for the 
recovery of his kingdom. Ptolemy of Egypt, who had entered Syria with 
an army for the aid of his son-in-law, Alexander, became disgusted by his 
ingratitude and came over to the side of Demetrius. A battle near An¬ 
tioch was decided in favor of the allies. Alexander fled into Arabia,, 
where he was assassinated by some of his own officers. 

48. Demetrius II. (Nicator) ruled with such wanton cruelty as to alienate 
his subjects. One of them, Diod'otus Tryphon, set up a rival king in the 
person of Antiochus VI., a child two years of age, the son of Alexander 
Balas. After three or four years he removed this infant monarch and 
made himself king, with the aid of Judas Maccabseus. Demetrius, after 
fighting ineffectually seven years against his rivals in the west, left the 
regency of Syria to his wife, Cleopatra, while he turned against the Par¬ 
tisans, who had nearly conquered his eastern provinces. He was defeated 
and made prisoner by Arsaces VI., and remained ten years a captive, 
though he was treated with all the honors of royalty, and received a 
Parthian princess for his second wife. 

44. Cleopatra, unable to wage war alone against Tryphon, called in 
Antiochus Sideses, her husband’s brother, who conquered the usurper and 
seated himself on the vacant throne. He made war against the Jews,, 
and captured Jerusalem by a siege of nearly a year. He afterward 
turned against the Parthians and gained some advantages, but he was 
finally defeated and lost his life after a reign of nine years. Demetrius 
Nicator had been released by the Parthian king, and now re-established 
himself in Syria. But Ptolemy Phys'con, of Egypt, raised up a new 
pretender, Zabi'nas, who defeated Demetrius at Damascus. Attempting 
to enter Tyre, the Syrian king was captured and put to death. 

45. Seleucus V., his eldest son, assumed the crown without the permis¬ 
sion of his mother, who thereupon caused him to be executed, and asso¬ 
ciated with herself her second son, Antiochus VIII. (Grypus). Zabinas r 
the pretender, reigned at the same time in part of Syria, until he was 
defeated by Antiochus, and put to death by poison, B. C. 122. The same 
year Cleopatra was detected in a plot against the life of her son, and 
was herself executed. 

46. Exhausted by long wars, and greatly reduced both in power and 
extent, Syria now enjoyed eight years of peace. Judfea and the prov¬ 
inces east of the Euphrates were wholly independent. The few Syrians 
who possessed wealth were enfeebled by luxury, while the mass of the 
people were crushed by want. In 114 B. C., Antiochus Cyzice'nus, a 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


215 


half-brother of the king, revolted against him, and involved the country- 
in another bloody war of three years. The territory was then divided 
between them; but war broke out afresh in 105 B. C., and continued 
nine years, resulting in no gain to either party, but great loss and misery 
to the nation. Tyre, Sidon, Seleucia, and the whole province of Cilicia 
became independent. The Arabs on one side, and the Egyptians on the 
other, ravaged the country at pleasure. At length the reign of Antiochus 
VIII. was ended with his life, by Hera'cleon, an officer of his court, 
B. C. 96. 

47. The murderer did not receive the reward of his crime, for Seleucus 
VI. (Epiphanes), the eldest son of Grypus, gained possession of the king¬ 
dom. In two years he conquered Cyzicenus, who committed suicide to 
avoid capture; but the claims of the rival house were still maintained 
by Antiochus X. (Eu / sebes), his eldest son. Seleucus was now driven 
into Cilicia. Here he came to a miserable end, for he was burnt alive 
by the people of a town from which he had demanded a subsidy. Philip, 
the brother of Seleucus, and second son of Antiochus Grypus, became king, 
and with the aid of his younger brothers continued the war against Eu- 
sebes. This prince was defeated and driven to take refuge in Parthia. 
But no peace came to the country, for Philip and his brothers, Anti¬ 
ochus XI., Demetrius, and Antiochus XII., made war with each other, 
until the unhappy Syrians called upon Tigra'nes, king of Armenia, to end 
their miseries. 

48. Tigranes governed, wisely and well, fourteen years (B. C. 83-69); 
but having at length incurred the vengeance of the Romans, by rendering 
aid to his father-in-law, Mithridates of Pontus, he was forced to give up all 
except his hereditary kingdom. Four years longer (B. C. 69-65), Syria 
continued its separate existence, under Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticus), the 
son of Eusebes. At the end of that time the kingdom was subdued by 
Pompey the Great, and became a Roman province. 

RECAPITULATION-. 

Seleucus I. (B. C. 312-281) extended his empire beyond the Indus, built many 
cities, gained all Asia Minor by the defeat of Lysimaclius. Antiochus I. (B. C. 
280-261) lost the territories of Pergamus and Galatia; Antiochus II. (261-246), those 
of Parthia and Bactria. Under Seleucus II. (246-226), the greater part of the em¬ 
pire was conquered by Ptolemy, but soon recovered. Seleucus III. reigned three 
years (B. C. 226-223). Antiochus III. (B. C. 223-187) quelled the revolts of Molo and 
Acheeus; had wars with the kings of Parthia and Bactria; penetrated India as 
far as the Ganges; punished the pirates of the Persian Gulf; wrested from Egypt 
the provinces of Syria and Palestine; overran Asia Minor, and invaded Greece. 
He was defeated by the Romans, twice by sea and twice by land. Seleucus IV. 
IB. C. 187-176) was murdered by his treasurer, Heliodorus. Antiochus IV. (B. C. 
176-164) was prevented by the Romans from conquering Egypt; excited by his 
persecutions a revolt in Judsea, which became independent under the Maccabees. 
The short reign of Antiochus V. (B. C. 164-162) was filled with wars of the regents. 


216 


A NCI ENT HIST OR Y. 


His uncle, Demetrius I. (B. C. 162-151), had unsuccessful wars with the Jews and 
Cappadocians; was conquered by Alexander Balas, who reigned B. C. 151-146. 
Demetrius II. had a disputed reign (B. C. 146-140); a ten years’ imprisonment in 
Parthia (B. C. 140-130), while his wife and his brother, Antiochus VII., ruled 
Syria; and a second contest with a pretender, B. C. 129-126. Antiochus VIII. 
(B. C. 126-96) reigned five years jointly with his mother, seven years alone, and 
eighteen years side by side with his brother, Antiochus IX. (Cyzicenus), who 
ruled Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, B, C. 111-96. Seleucus V. (B. C. 96, 95) conquered 
Cyzicenus, but carried on the same war with his son, Eusebes, until his own 
violent death. His younger brothers fought first Eusebes, and then each other, 
until Tigranes, king of Armenia, conquered the country and ruled it fourteen 
years (B. C. 83-69). Antiochus XIII. the last of the Seleucidse, reigned B. C. 69-65. 

II. Egypt under the Ptolemies. B. C. 323-30. 

49. The Macedonian Kingdom in Egypt presented a marked and bril¬ 
liant contrast to the native empires and the Persian satrapy. By remov¬ 
ing the capital to Alexandria, the conqueror had provided for free inter¬ 
course with foreign countries, and the old exclusiveness of the Egyptians 
was forever broken down. While Palestine was attached to this kingdom, 
especial favor was shown to the Jews; and in the Greek conquerors, the 
native Egyptians, and the Jewish merchants, the three families of Shem, 
Ham, and Japhet were reunited as they had never been since the disper¬ 
sion at Babel. The Egyptians, who had abhorred the Persian dominion, 
hailed the Macedonians as deliverers; the common people engaged with 
zeal in the new industries that promised wealth as the reward of enterprise, 
and the learned class found their delight in the intellectual society, as well 
as the rare treasures of literature and art, that filled the court of the Ptol¬ 
emies. 

50. Ptolemy I. (Soter*) received the Egyptian province immediately 
upon the death of Alexander, and proceeded to organize it with great 
energy and wisdom. Desiring to make Egypt a maritime power, he sought 
at once to conquer Palestine, Phoenicia, and Cyprus, whose forests were as 
needful to him for ship-building as their sea-faring people for sailors. 
The two countries on the mainland were occupied by Ptolemy in 320 B. C., 
and remained six years in his possession. They were lost in the war with 
Antigonus, and only fully regained after the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 301. 
Cyprus was the scene of many conflicts, of which the great naval battle 
off' Salamis, B. C. 306, was the most severe and decisive. It was then lost 
to Egypt, but in B. C. 294 or 293 it was regained, and continued her most 
valuable foreign possession as long as the kingdom existed. Cvrene and 
all the Libyan tribes between it and Egypt were also annexed by Ptolemy. 

51. Few changes were made in the internal government of Egypt. 
The country, as before, was divided into nomes, each having its own ruler, 


* He is frequently called Ptolemy Lagi, from the name of his father, Lagus. 



THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


217 


who was usually a native Egyptian. The old laws and worship prevailed. 
The Ptolemies rebuilt the temples, paid especial honors to the Apis, and 
made the most of all points of resemblance between the Greek and Egyp¬ 
tian religions. A magnificent temple to Sera'pis was erected at Alexandria. 
The priests retained their privileges and honors, being exempt from all 
taxation. The army was chiefly, and its officers wholly, Greek or Macedo¬ 
nian, and all civil dignities of any importance were also filled by the con¬ 
quering people. The Greek inhabitants of the cities alone possessed entire 
freedom in the management of their affairs. 

52. Ptolemy followed the liberal policy of Alexander toward men of 
genius and learning. He collected a vast and precious library, which he 
placed in a building connected with the palace; and he founded the 
“ Museum,” which drew students and professors from all parts of the 
world. No spot ever witnessed more literary and intellectual activity 
than Alexandria, the University of the East. There Euclid first unfolded 
the “ Elements of Geometry ”; EratosThenes discoursed of Geography ; 
Hipparchus, of Astronomy; Aristopl/anes and Aristar'chus, of Criticism ; 
Man'etho, of History ; while ApePles and Antipli'ilus added their paint¬ 
ings, and Phile'tas, Callinr'achus, and Apollonius their poems, for the 
delight of a court whose monarch was himself an author, and in which 
talent c.onstituted rank. Alexandria during this reign was adorned with 
many costly and magnificent works. The royal palace ; the Museum ; the 
great light-house on the island of Pharos, which has given its name to 
many similar constructions in modern times; the mole or causeway which 
connected this island with the mainland; the Hippodrome, and the 
Mausoleum, containing the tomb of Alexander, were among the chief. 
Ptolemy Soter was distinguished by his truth and magnanimity from most 
of the princes and generals of his age. His unlimited power never led 
him to cruelty or self-indulgence. He died at the age of eighty-four, 
B. C. 283. 

53. Ptolemy II. (Philadelphia), through the influence of his mother, 
had been raised to the throne two years before his father’s death, instead 
of his elder brother, Ceraunus. He had been carefully educated by several 
of the learned men whom the patronage of his father had drawn to the 
court; and he continued, on a still more liberal scale, that encouragement 
of science and literature which had already made Alexandria a successful 
rival of Athens. He so greatly increased the Alexandrian Library that 
he is often mentioned as its founder. Agents were appointed to search 
Europe and Asia for every literary work of value, and to secure it at any 
cost. An embassy was sent to the high priest at Jerusalem to bring a copy 
of the Holy Scriptures, together with a company of learned men who could 
translate them into Greek. The translators were entertained by the king 
with the greatest honor. The first five books were completed in the reign 


218 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


of Philadelphia, the rest were translated by order of the later Ptolemies; 
and the entire version — still an invaluable treasure to Biblical scholars — 
is known as the Sep'tuagint, either from the seventy translators, or because 
it was authorized by the San'hedrim of Alexandria, which consisted of the 
same number. 

54. Ptolemy II. was engaged in various wars; first for the furtherance 
of the Achaean League, and the protection of the Greeks against Macedo¬ 
nian aggressions; afterward against his half-brother, Magas, king of Cy- 
rene, and the kings of Syria, with whom Magas was allied. He gained 
possession of the whole coast of Asia Minor, with many of the Cyclades. 
By the wisdom of his internal policy, Egypt was meanwhile raised to her 
highest pitch of wealth and prosperity. He re-opened the canal made by 
Raineses the Great (see Book I, $1 153, 154), and built the port of Arsinoe, 
on the site of the modern Suez. To avoid the dangers of Red Sea naviga¬ 
tion, he founded two cities, named Berenice, farther to the southward, and 
connected one of them by a highway with Coptos on the Nile. Egypt thus 
reaped the full commercial advantage of her position midway between the 
East and the West. For centuries the rich productions of India, Arabia, 
and Ethiopia were conveyed along these various highways to Alexandria, 
whence they were distributed to Syria, Greece, and Rome. The revenues 
of Egypt were equal to those which Darius had derived from the vast 
empire of Persia. 

55. The personal character of Pliiladelplius was less admirable than that 
of his father. He killed two of his brothers, banished a most faithful 
counselor, and by marrying his own sister, Arsinoe, introduced a custom 
which caused untold misery and mischief in the kingdom. He died B. C. 
247, having reigned thirty-eight years, or thirty-six from the death of his- 
father. 

56. Ptolemy III. (Euergetes) was the most enterprising monarch of his- 
race, and pushed the boundaries of his kingdom to their greatest extent. 
He gained the Cyr / ena / ica by marriage with the daughter of Magas, and 
annexed portions of Ethiopia and Arabia. In his war against Syria to 
avenge his sister Berenice (see $§ 32, 33), he even passed the Euphrates 
and conquered all the country to the borders of Bactria; but he lost all 
this by his sudden recall to Egypt. His conquests on the sea-board, 
which could be defended by his fleet, remained permanently in his pos¬ 
session. All the shores of the Mediterranean, from Cyrene to the Helles¬ 
pont, with many important islands, and even a portion of Europe, 
including Lysimachia in Thrace, belonged to his dominion. 

He continued the patronage of art and letters, and enriched the Alex¬ 
andrian libraries with many rare manuscripts. The Egyptians were 
still more gratified by the recovery of some ancient images of their gods, 
which had been carried away to Assyria by Sargon or Esarhaddon, and 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


219 


were brought back by Ptolemy from his eastern campaign. Euergetes 
died B. C. 222, after a prosperous reign of twenty-five years; and with 
him ended the glory of the Macedonian monarchy in Egypt. “Histori¬ 
ans reckon nine Ptolemies after Euergetes. Except Philome / tor, who 
was mild and humane; Lath / yrus, who was amiable but weak; and 
Ptolemy XII., who was merely young and incompetent, they were all, 
almost equally, detestable.” 

57. Ptolemy IV. was suspected of having murdered his father, and 
therefore took the surname Philopator to allay suspicion. He began his 
reign, however, by murdering his mother, his brother, and his uncle, and 
marrying his sister Arsinoe. A few years later she, too, was put to death, 
at the instigation of a worthless favorite of the king. The control of 
affairs was left to Sosib'ius, a minister who was equally wicked and in¬ 
competent. Through his neglect, the army became weakened by lack 
of discipline, and the Syrians seized the opportunity to recover their lost 
possessions. They were defeated, however, at Raph'ia, and gained only 
their port of Seleucia. A revolt of the native Egyptians occupied many 
years of this reign. 

58. Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes) was only five years old at his father's 
death. The kings of Syria and Macedon plotted to divide his dominions 
between them, and the only resource of the incompetent ministers was to 
call the Romans to their aid. All the foreign dependencies, except 
Cyprus and the Cyrenaica, were lost; but by the good management of 
M. Lep'idus, Egypt was saved to the little Ptolemy. Aristom'enes, an 
Acarnanian, succeeded Lepidus as regent, and his energy and justice re¬ 
stored for a time the prosperity of the kingdom. At the age of fourteen, 
Epiphanes was declared of age, and the government was thenceforth in 
his name. Few events of his reign are known. He married Cleopatra 
of Syria, and soon after poisoned his late guardian, Aristomenes. His 
plans for a war with Syria were prevented by his own assassination, 
B. C. 181. 

59. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor) became king at the age of seven, under 
the vigorous regency of his mother, Cleopatra. She died B. C. 173, and 
the power passed into the hands of two weak and corrupt ministers, who 
involved the kingdom in war, and almost in ruin, by their rash invasion 
of Syria. Antiochus IV. defeated them at Pelusium, and advancing to 
Memphis, gained possession of the young king, whom he used as a tool 
for the reduction of the whole country. The Alexandrians crowned 
Ptolemy Physcon, a younger brother of the king, and successfully with¬ 
stood the besieging army of Antiochus. The Romans now interposing, 
he was obliged to retreat. 

The two brothers agreed to reign together, and prepared for war with 
Antiochus. He captured Cyprus, invaded Egypt a second time, and 


220 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


would doubtless have added the entire dominion of the Ptolemies to his 
own, if the Romans, who claimed the protectorate of Egypt, liad not 
again interfered and commanded him to withdraw. The Syrian king 
reluctantly obeyed, and the brothers reigned four years in peace. They 
then quarreled, and Philometor went to plead his cause before the Roman 
Senate. The Romans re-instated him in the possession of Egypt, giving 
to his brother Physcon Libya and the Cyrenaica. Dissatisfied with his 
portion, Physcon went to Rome and obtained a further grant of Cyprus; 
but Philometor refused to give it up, and the brothers were preparing for 
war, when a revolt in Cyrene engaged the attention of its king. After 
nine years he renewed his claim, and obtained from Rome a small squad¬ 
ron to aid in the capture of the island. He was defeated and made 
prisoner by his brother; but his life was spared, and he was restored to 
his kingdom of Cyrene. Philometor fell, B. C. 146, in a battle near 
Antioch, with Alexander Balas, whom he had himself encouraged to 
assume the crown of Syria. (See § 42.) 

60. Ptolemy VII. (Eupator) had reigned but a few days when he was 
murdered by his uncle, Ptolemy Physcon, who, aided by the Romans, 
united in himself the two kingdoms, Egypt and Cyrene. This monster 
created such terror by his inhuman cruelties, and such disgust by his 
excesses, that his capital became half depopulated, and the citizens who 
remained were almost constantly in revolt. At last he was forced to take 
refuge in Cyprus, the crown remaining to his sister, Cleopatra. To wound 
the queen most deeply, he murdered her son, and sent her the head and 
hands of the victim. The Alexandrians were so enraged by this atrocity, 
that they fought bravely for Cleopatra; but when she applied for aid to 
the king of Syria, they became alarmed and recalled Physcon, after an 
exile of three years. Warned by his punishment, Physcon now desisted 
from his cruelties, and devoted himself to literary pursuits, even gaining 
some reputation as an author. 

61. Ptolemy VIII. (LatlVyrus) succeeded his father in Egypt, while his 
brother Alexander reigned in Cyprus, and A / pion, another son of Phys¬ 
con, received the Cyrenaica. Cleopatra, the queen mother, had the real 
power. After ten years, Lathyrus offended his mother by pursuing a 
policy of his own, and was compelled to change places with Alexander, 
who reigned eighteen years in Egypt, with the title of Ptolemy IX. 
Cleopatra was then put to death, Alexander expelled, and Ptolemy Lath¬ 
yrus recalled. He reigned eight years as sole monarch, defeated Alex¬ 
ander, who attempted to regain Cyprus, and punished a revolt in Thebes 
by a siege of three years, ending with the destruction of the city, B. C. 
89-86. 

62. Berenice, the only legitimate child of Lathyrus, reigned six months 
alone, and was then married and associated upon the throne with her 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


221 


cousin, Ptolemy X., a son of Alexander, whose claims were supported 
by the Romans. Within three weeks he put his wife to death, and the 
Alexandrians, revolting, slew him in the gymnasium, B. C. 80. Fifteen 
years of great confusion followed, during which the succession was 
disputed by at least five claimants, and Cyprus became a separate 
kingdom. 

63. Ptolemy XI. (Aule'tes, or the Flute-Player) then obtained the 
crown, and dated his reign from the death of his half-sister, Berenice. 
In 59 B. C., he was acknowledged by the Romans; but by that time his 
oppressive and profligate government had so disgusted the people, that 
they drove him from the kingdom. He took refuge four years in Rome, 
while his two daughters nominally governed Egypt, first jointly, and then 
the younger alone, after her sister’s death. In 55 B. C. Auletes returned, 
supported by a Roman army, put to death his daughter, who had opposed 
his restoration, and reigned under Roman protection three and a half 
years. He died, B. C. 51, leaving four children: the famous Cleopatra, 
aged seventeen ; Ptolemy XII.; another Ptolemy, and a daughter Arsinoe, 
still younger. 

64. The princess Cleopatra received the crown under Roman patronage, 
in conjunction with the elder Ptolemy. The 
brother and sister quarreled, and Cleopatra 
was driven into Syria. Here she met Julius 
Csesar, and by her talents and accomplish¬ 
ments gained great ascendency over his mind. 

By his aid Ptolemy was conquered and slain, 
and Cleopatra established in the kingdom. 

She removed her younger brother by poison, 
and had thenceforth no rival. With con¬ 
summate ability, mixed with the unscrupu¬ 
lous cruelty of her race, she reigned seventeen 
years in great prosperity. Csesar was her pro¬ 
tector while he lived, and Antony then be¬ 
came her slave, sacrificing all his interests, 
and his honor as a Roman and a general, 
to her slightest caprices. In the civil wars 
of Rome, Antony was at length defeated at 
Actium; Cleopatra committed suicide, and 
her kingdom became a Roman province, 

B. C. 30. 

65. The kingdom of the Ptolemies had 
continued 293 years, from the death of Alex¬ 
ander to that of Cleopatra. During 101 years, under the first three 
kings, it was the most flourishing, well organized, and prosperous of 



Coin of Antony and Cleopatra, 
twice the size. 



























































































































































222 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the Macedonian monarchies; the nearly two centuries which remained 
were among the most degraded periods in the history of the human 
race. 

BECAPITTJLATIOIT. 

Prosperity of Egypt under the Ptolemies. Concourse of races at Alexandria. 
Ptolemy I. (B. C. 323-283) conquered Palestine, Phoenicia, Cyprus, and the African 
«oast as far as Cyrene. Old laws and worship retained. Alexandrian Library 
and Museum, professors and public works. Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 283-247) 
ordered a Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures; constructed cities, x'oads, and 
canals for purposes of commerce. Acquisitions of Ptolemy III. (B. C. 247-222). 
Rapid conquests in Asia, speedily lost. Collection of manuscripts and recovery 
of images. Decline of the Ptolemaic kingdom. Crimes of Ptolemy IV. (B. C. 
222-205). Victory at Rapliia, B. C. 217. Roman interference during the minority 
of Ptolemy V. (B. C. 205-181). Ptolemy VI. (B. C. 181-146) taken by Antiochus IV., 
of Syria. His brother Physcon crowned. Rome protected Egyptian dependencies 
against Syria, and divided them between the brothers. Ptolemy VII. was mur¬ 
dered by his uncle, Ptolemy Physcon, who reigned B. C. 146-117. He was exiled 
for his crimes, but recalled in three yeai’s. Ptolemy VIII. and his brother Alex¬ 
ander reigned alternately in Egypt and Cyprus while their mother lived (B. C. 
117-89). After her death, the former was sole monarch until B. C. 81. Berenice 
reigned six months (B. C. 81, 80), and was then murdered by her husband, Ptol¬ 
emy X. He was slain by the Alexandrians. Ptolemy XI. (B. C. 83-51) made good 
his claim after fifteen years’ anarchy; was acknowledged by the Romans, but 
expelled (B. C. 59-55) by his subjects; returned to reign under Roman pi'otection. 
Cleopatra poisoned her two brothers, and by favor of Caesar and Antony kept 
her kingdom twenty-one years, B. C. 51-30. 

* 

III. Macedonia and Greece. 

66. Upon the death of Alexander, the greater part of Greece revolted 
against Macedon, Athens, as of old, being the leader. Antipater, the 
Macedonian regent, was defeated near Thermopylae, and besieged in 
Lamia, in Thessaly. The confederates were afterward worsted at Cranon, 
and the good management of Antipater dissolved the league by treating 
with its members separately, and offering the most lenient terms to all 
except the leaders. Athens suffered the punishment she had often in¬ 
flicted. Twelve thousand of her citizens were forcibly removed to Thrace, 
Illyria, Italy, and Africa, only nine thousand of the wealthier sort being 
left, who willingly submitted to the Macedonian supremacy. Demos¬ 
thenes, with the principal members of his party, were executed, and the 
last remains of Athenian independence destroyed. 

67. The wars of the generals and the intrigues of the Macedonian 
princesses belong to Period II. (See $$ 19-25.) Three years after the 
battle of Ipsus, Cassander died, B. C. 298, leaving the crown to his son, 
Philip IV. The young king reigned less than a year, and his mother, 
Thessalonica, then divided Macedonia between her two remaining sons, 
Antipater and Alexander. The former, being dissatisfied with his portion, 
murdered his mother and called in his father-in-law, Lysimachus, to aid 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


223 


him in gaining the whole. His brother, at the same time, asked aid 
of Demetrius, who reigned in Greece, and of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. 
With their help he drove Antipater out of Macedonia; but he gained 
nothing by the victory, for Demetrius had undertaken the war solely 
with the view of placing himself upon the throne, which he accom¬ 
plished by the murder of Alexander. Antipater II. was put to death 
the same year by Lysimachus, B. C. 294. 

68. The kingdom now included Thessaly, Attica, and the greater part 
of the Peloponnesus, Pyrrhus having received several countries on the 
western coast of Greece. Demetrius, however, sacrificed all his domin¬ 
ions to his unbounded ambition and conceit. He failed in an attack on 
Pyrrhus, and being invaded both from the east and west, was compelled 
to abandon Macedonia, B. C. 287. In a later expedition into Asia, he 
became the prisoner of Seleucus, and died in the third year of his cap¬ 
tivity. (See $ 29.) 

69. Pyrrhus remained king of the greater part of Macedonia nearly a 
year, but was then driven back to his hereditary kingdom by Lysima¬ 
chus, who thus extended his own dominions from the Halys to Mount 
Pindus, B. C. 286. The capital of this consolidated kingdom was Lys- 
imachia, in the Chersonese, and Macedonia for five years was merely a 
province. The nobles, becoming discontented, called in Seleucus, who 
defeated and killed Lysimachus, B. C. 281. 

70. For a few weeks the aged Seleucus governed nearly all the domin¬ 
ions of Alexander, except Egypt. He was then assassinated by Ptolemy 
Ceraunus, * who became king in his stead. The Egyptian prince was 
soon overwhelmed by a new peril in the invasion of the Gauls. This 
restless people had been pouring for nearly a century into northern Italy, 
where they had driven out the Etruscans from the plain of the Po, and 
given their own name to Gallia Cisalpina. Now turning eastward, they 
occupied the plain of the Danube, and pressed southward as far as Illyr- 
icum, whence they proceeded in three divisions, one falling upon the 
Thracians, another upon the Paeonians, and a third upon the Macedo¬ 
nians. The last army encountered Ptolemy Ceraunus, who was defeated 
and slain in battle. For two years they ravaged Macedonia, while 
Melea'ger, a brother of Ceraunus, and Antipater, a nephew of Cassander, 
successively occupied the throne, B. C. 279-277. 

71. Brennus, a Gallic leader, with more than 200,000 men, marched 
through Thessaly, laying all waste with fire and sword. A furious battle 
took place at Thermopylae, and the Gauls, at last, only gained the rear 
of the Greek army by the same mountain path which had admitted the 
troops of Xerxes two hundred years before. Brennus pushed on to 


* Brother of Philadelphus. (See § 65.) 



224 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


plunder Delphi, but an army of 4,000, well posted upon the heights of 
Parnassus, withstood him with success; and a violent wintry storm, which 
confused and benumbed the assailants, convinced devout Greeks that 
Apollo was once more defending his sanctuary. The Gallic leader was 
severely wounded, and unwilling to survive his disgrace, put an end to 
his own life. His army broke up into a multitude of marauding bands, 
without order or discipline, and the greater part perished from cold, 
hunger, or battle. Their countrymen, however, established a kingdom in 
Thrace; and another band, invited into Asia Minor by Nicomedes, became 
possessed of a large tract of country, which received their name as 
GalaTia. 

72. During the disorders in Macedonia, Sosthenes, an officer of noble 
birth, had been placed at the head of affairs, instead of Antipater, who 
was deposed for his incapacity. After the Gauls had retired, Antipater 
regained the throne. But Antigonus Gonatas, who had maintained him¬ 
self as an independent prince in central and southern Greece, ever since 
the captivity of his father, Demetrius, now appeared with an army com¬ 
posed mainly of Gallic mercenaries, defeated Antipater, and gained pos¬ 
session of Macedonia. Antiochus Soter made war against him, but was 
opposed with so much energy that he acknowledged Antigonus as king, 
and gave him his sister Phila in marriage. But Antigonus was never 
acceptable to either Greeks or Macedonians, and when Pyrrhus, the most 
popular prince of his age, returned from Italy, the whole Macedonian 
army was ready to desert to his side. Antigonus was defeated, and for 
a year or more was a fugitive, B. C. 273-271. 

73. Pyrrhus was the greatest warrior and one of the best princes of his 
time — a time from which truth and fidelity seemed almost to have dis¬ 
appeared. He might have become the most powerful monarch in the 
world, if his perseverance had been equal to his talents and ambition. 
But instead of organizing the territory he possessed, he was ever thirsting 
for new conquests. In a war upon southern Greece he was repulsed from 
Sparta, and in attempting to seize Argos by night, he was killed by a 
tile thrown by a woman from a house-top. 

74. Antigonus Gonatas now returned and reigned thirty-two years. 
He extended his power over most of the Peloponnesus, and waged war 
five years against the Athenians, who were aided by Sparta and Egypt. 
In the meantime, Antigonus was recalled by the incursion of Alexander, 
son of Pyrrhus, who was carrying all before him, and had been ac¬ 
knowledged king of Macedon. Demetrius, son of Antigonus, chased him 
out of Macedonia, and even out of Epirus; and though he was soon re¬ 
stored to his paternal dominion, he remained thenceforth at peace with 
his neighbors. Athens fell in 263 B. C. Nineteen years later, Antigonus 
gained possession of Corinth; but this was the last of his successes. 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


225 


75. The Achaean League, which had been suppressed by the immediate 
successors of Alexander, had soon revived, and extended itself beyond 
the limits of Achaia, receiving cities from all the Peloponnesus. In 243 
B. C., Ara'tus, its head, by a sudden and well-concerted movement cap¬ 
tured Corinth, which immediately joined the League. Several important 
cities followed the example; and Antigonus, who had grown old and 
cautious, was unable to oppose them, except by stirring up iEtolia to 
attack the Achoeans. He died B. C. 239, having lived eighty and reigned 
thirty-seven years. 

76. Demetrius II. allied himself with Epirus, and broke friendship with 
the iEtolians, who were enemies of that kingdom. The consequence was, 
that the iEtolians made a junction with the Achaean League to oppose 
him. He was able to defeat them in Thessaly and Bceotia, but south 
of the isthmus the ascendency of Macedon was at an end. The Romans 
now for the first time interfered in Grecian affairs, by requiring the 
iEtolian confederacy to abstain from aggressions upon Acarnania. Cor- 
cyra, Apollonia, and Epidamnus fell into their hands, B. C. 228, a year 
after the death of Demetrius II. 

77. Philip Y. was but eight years old when he inherited his father’s 
dominions, under the guardianship of his kinsman, Antigonus Doson. 
During this regency great changes took place in Sparta, which led to a 
brief return of her old energy. The laws of Lycurgus had continued in 
force more than five centuries, but the time of their fitness and useful¬ 
ness had passed away. The rigid separation which they made between 
the different classes, now limited the number of true Spartans to 700, 
while the property tests were so severe, that only 100 enjoyed the full 
rights of citizens. The wealth of the community was concentrated in the 
hands of a few, who violated the old law by living in great luxury. In 
this condition, Sparta was unable even to defend herself against Illyrian 
pirates or iEtolian marauders, still less to exert any influence, as of old, 
in the general affairs of Greece. 

The reforms proposed B. C. 230, by Agis IV., and carried, four years 
later, by Cleomenes, added 3,800 pericefci to the number of citizens, and 
re-divided the lands of the state between these and 15,000 selected Laco¬ 
nians. Debts were abolished, and the old simple and frugal customs of 
Lycurgus restored. Sparta was now able to defeat the forces of the 
AcliEean League, and to draw from it, into her own alliance, most of the 
Peloponnesian towns out of Achaia. But Aratus, the head of the League, 
violated all its principles by calling in Antigonus, the Macedonian regent, 
and putting him in possession of Acro-Corinthus. In the battle of Sel- 
la'sia, B. C. 221, Cleomenes was defeated, and forced to take refuge at the 
court of Ptolemy Pliilopator. The League which had been created to 
defend the liberties of Greece, had betrayed them; and there was no 
A. II—15. 


226 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


longer any hope either of restoring the glories of Sparta, or of checking 
the overwhelming power of Macedon and Rome. 

78. Antigonus died B. C. 220, and Philip, now seventeen years of age, 
assumed the government. The great advantages gained during the regency 
were soon lost by his rashness. He hastily allied himself with Hannibal 
against Rome, and then with Antiochus of Syria against Egypt. (See 
\\ 37, 59.) His first war, however, was against AEtolia, which had sprung 
to arms immediately upon his accession, hoping at once to overbalance its 
rival, Achaia, and to increase its own territories at the expense of Macedon. 
As early as the time of Alexander the Great, the AEtolian tribes had 
formed themselves into a federal republic, which occupied a similar posi¬ 
tion in central Greece to that of the Achaean League in the Peloponnesus. 
By the subjection or annexation of several states, it was now extended 
from the Ionian to the HEgean Sea. Philip overran AEtolia with great 
energy, captured its seat of government, and by his brilliant successes 
showed a military talent worthy of the early days of Macedonian conquest. 
But the news of a great victory gained by Hannibal at Lake Tlirasyme'ne, 
recalled his attention to the object of his chief ambition, a war with 
Rome. 

79. The first movement in the new war was the siege of Apollonia, a 
Roman colony in Illyricum. Philip hoped to drive the Romans from the 
western coast of Greece, and thus prepare the way for an invasion of Italy. 
His camp was surprised at night by Valerius, and he was forced to burn 
his ships and retreat in all haste. The AEtolians and all their allies — 
Sparta, Elis, and the kings of Illyricum and Pergamus — took sides with 
Rome, and carried the war into Macedonia, forcing Philip to ask the aid 
of Carthage. The Romans captured Zacynthus, Ne'sos and (Eniadse, An- 
tic'yra in Locris, and the island of iEgina, and presented all to the AEto- 
lians. 

At this crisis, Philopoe'men, the greatest Greek of his time, became 
commander of the Achaean, cavalry, and, two years later, the head of the 
League. He improved the drill and tactics of the army, and infused new 
spirit into the whole nation. His invasion of Elis, in concert with Philip, 
was unsuccessful, and the king was defeated by Sulpic / ius Galba; but, in 
207 B. C., the great victory of Mantinea placed the Macedonians and 
Achaeans on a more equal footing with the Romans. Peace was made on 
terms honorable to all parties. 

80. Philip, spoiled by ambition, had become unscrupulous and reckless. 
Instead of securing what he already possessed, he continually grasped after 
new conquests; and disregarding the storm that was sure to burst upon 
him sooner or later from the west, he now turned to the east and south. 
He made a treaty with Antiochus the Great for a partition of the Egyptian 
dependencies, by which he was to receive Thrace and the western part of 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


227 


Asia Minor. This led at once to war with At'talus of Pergamus, an ally 
•of Rome, as well as with Rhodes, which took the part of Egypt. His fleet 
was signally defeated off Chios, B. Q. 201; and though he afterward gained 
a victory at Lade, his losses were not retrieved. He captured, however, 
the important islands of Samos, Thasos, and Chios, with the province of 
Caria, and several places in Ionia. 

81. The great disaster of the war was the rupture of the treaty with 
Rome. That power interfered in behalf of her allies, Egypt, Rhodes, and 
Pergamus; and when Philip rejected all reasonable demands, she declared the 
peace at an end. In the second war with Rome, Greece was at first divided 
into three parties, some states remaining neutral, some siding with Rome, 
and some with Macedon. But when the consul, Fla / mini / nus, proclaimed 
liberty to all the Greeks, and declared himself their champion against the 
long detested power of Macedon, nearly every state went over to the 
Roman side. On the land, Macedonia was attacked by Sulpicius Galba, 
aided by the Illyrians aftd Dardanians; while by sea, a Roman fleet, in¬ 
creased by Rhodian and Pergamene vessels, threatened the coast. Several 
important towns in Euboea were taken, but the great decisive battle was 
fought (B. C. 197) at Cynocephalse, where Philip was defeated and his 
power utterly prostrated. He was compelled to abandon all the Greek 
cities which he held, either in Europe or Asia, to surrender his entire 
navy, and to pay a war indemnity of one thousand talents ($1,250,000). 

82. In settling the affairs of Greece, the Romans subdivided the states 
into still smaller sections than of old, and guaranteed perfect independence 
to each. The two leagues of Achaia and iEtolia were, however, left to 
balance each other. The states were generally satisfied with the arrange¬ 
ment, but the iEtolians stirred up a new war in the very year of Flamini- 
nus’s departure, and called in Antiochus from Asia to their aid. He was 
defeated at Thermopylae by the Romans, B. C. 191, and the great battle 
of Magnesia, in the following year, ended all hope of resistance to the 
power of Rome. The Achaean League, sustained by the wise and able 
management of Philopoemen, gained in power by the weakening of its 
rival, and now included the whole Peloponnesus, with Megaris and some 

other territories beyond the peninsula. 

88. Philip had aided the Romans in the recent war, and had been per¬ 
mitted to extend his dominions over part of Thrace, and southward into 
Thessaly. But when peace was secured, he was required to give up all 
except his hereditary kingdom. Demetrius, the second son of Philip, had 
long been a hostage at Rome, and acted now as his father s embassador. 
The Roman Senate conceded many points, for the sake of the warm friend¬ 
ship which it professed for this young prince; but its favor only aroused 
the suspicions of his father and the jealousy of his elder brother, PePseus. 
The latter forged letters to convince his father of the treason of Demetrius, 


228 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


and the innocent youth was put to death by order of the king. But the 
grief and remorse of Philip exceeded all bounds, when he learned the de¬ 
ception that had been practiced. He believed that he was haunted by the 
spirit of Demetrius, and it was agony of mind, rather than bodily illness, 
that soon occasioned his death. 

An ancient historian remarked that there were few monarchs of 
whom more good or more evil could justly be said, than of Philip V, 
If the promise of his youth had been fulfilled, and the opportunities 
of his reign improved, he would have done great things for Macedonia 
and Greece. But his talents became obscured by drunkenness and prof¬ 
ligacy, his natural generosity was spoiled by the habit of supreme 
command, and he became in later years a gloomy, unscrupulous, and 
suspicious tyrant. 

84. Philip had designed to punish the crime of Perseus by leaving the 
throne to a distant relative, Antigonus; but the sudden death of the father, 
while Antigonus was absent from court, enabled the son to make himself 
king without opposition. He pursued with much diligence the policy of 
Philip, in preparing Macedonia for a second struggle with Home. The 
revenues were increased by a careful working of the mines; the popula¬ 
tion, wasted by so many wars, was recruited by colonies of Thracians and 
others; and close alliances were made with the kings of Asia, and with the 
hardy barbarians of the north, Gauls, Illyrians, and Germans, whose aid 
might be invaluable when the decisive moment should arrive. But Perseus- 
failed to unite the states of Greece, in which a large party already preferred 
his supremacy to that of Rome; and instead of using his treasures to sat¬ 
isfy and confirm his allies, he hoarded them penuriously, only to enrich 
his enemies at the end of the war. 

85. In the spring of 171 B. C., the Romans landed in Epirus, and spent 
some months in winning the Greek states to their side by money and in¬ 
fluence. In the autumn they met Perseus in Thessaly, with nearly equal 
forces, and were defeated. The Macedonian made no use, however, of his 
victory, and nothing of importance was done for two years. In 168 B. C., 
L. iEmiPius Paulus assumed the command, and forced Perseus to a battle 
near Pydna. Here the fate of Macedon was finally decided. Perseus was 
defeated and fled to Samothrace, where he was soon captured with all his 
treasures. He was taken to Rome, and compelled to walk in chains in the 
splendid triumph of ^Emilius. After several years, the last of the Macedo¬ 
nian kings died in imprisonment at Alba. 

Macedonia was not immediately made a Roman province, but was divided 
into four distinct states, which were forbidden all intercourse with each 
other. The people were consoled by a great reduction in the taxes, the 
Romans demanding only half the amount which they had been accustomed 
to pay their native kings. 


229 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

86. In Greece, all confederacies, except the Achaean League, were dis¬ 
solved. Achaia had been the constant friend of Rome during the war; 
but to insure its submission, one thousand of the principal citizens were 
accused of having secretly aided Perseus, and were carried to Italy for 
trial. They were imprisoned seventeen years without a hearing; and then, 
when all but three hundred had died, these were sent back, in the cer¬ 
tainty that their resentment against Rome would lead them to some rash 
act of hostility. 

All happened as the Romans had foreseen. The three of the exiles who 
were most embittered by this unprovoked outrage came into power, and 
their enmity gave to their foes what they most desired, a pretext for an 
armed invasion of the territories of the League. In 146 B. C., war was 
declared. One of the Achaean leaders was disastrously defeated and slain 
near Thermopylae; another, with the remnant of the army, made a last 
stand at Corinth, but he was defeated and the city was taken, plun¬ 
dered, and destroyed. Within a few years Greece was placed under 
proconsular government, like other provinces of Rome. It remained 
nearly sixteen centuries a part of that great empire, which, though 
driven from Italy, maintained its existence in the East, until it was 
overthrown by the Turks, A. D. 1453. 


RECAPITULATION. 

Lamian War ended in the subjection of Greece to Macedonia. Cassander 
reigned B. C. 316-297. Death of all his sons within three years, left the crown to 
Demetrius, son of Antigonus, (B. C. 294-287,) who lost it by rash enterprises, and 
died a prisoner in Asia. Pyrrhus, the Epirote, reigned a year. Macedonia was 
then annexed to Thrace (B. C. 286-281). On the death of Lysimachus, it fell to 
Seleucus, who was murdered in turn by Ptolemy Ceraunus. In the reign of 
Ptolemy (B. C. 281-279), Meleager, Antipater II., and Sosthenes (B. C. 279-277), the 
Gauls ravaged Macedonia and Greece, gained Thermopylae, but were defeated at 
Delphi. Antigonus, son of Demetrius (B. C. 277-273), was expelled by Pyrrhus, 
whose second reign lasted B. C. 273-271, but who was killed at Argos, and Antig¬ 
onus restored (B. C. 271-239). He captured Athens and Corinth; the latter was 
retaken by the Achaean League. Demetrius II. (B. C. 239-229) allied himself with 
Epirus against the Achaean and ^Etolian Leagues. First interference of Rome 
in Grecian affairs, B. C. 238. Regency of Antigonus Doson, B. C. 229-220. Reform 
and renewed energy in Sparta. Macedonians, in alliance with the Achaean 
League, defeated the Spartans at Sellasia, B. C. 221. Independent reign of Philip 
V., B. C. 220-179. His wars against JEtolia, Rome, Egypt. Romans, in a second 
war, proclaimed liberty to the Greeks; overthrew Philip at Cynocephalae, B. C. 
197; subdivided and reorganized the Grecian states. The iEtolians provoked 
another war, their ally, Antiochus, was defeated at Thermopylae and Magnesia. 
Death of Prince Demetrius and his father. Efforts of Perseus, the last king of 
Macedon (B. C. 179-168). His war with Rome; defeat at Pydna; capture and 
death. Division of Macedonia. Reduction of tribute. Treachery of the Romans 
toward the Achaean League. Last war with Rome. Battle of Leucopetra, near 
Corinth, B. C. 146. 


230 


ANCIENT HISTORY . 

IV. Thrace. 

87. The Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus has no history that need 
detain us. Unlike Egypt or Syria under Macedonian rule, it contributed 
nothing to literature, science, or general civilization. The several tribes 
were powerful by reason of their numbers, their hardy contempt of danger 
,and exposure, and their untamable love of freedom; but their strength 
was too often wasted in fighting against each other, and thus they were 
reduced either to subjects or humble allies of the more civilized nations to 
the southward. At the same time, their position on the Danube rendered 
them the most exposed of all the ancient kingdoms, to the incursions of 
the northern barbarians; and the history of Thrace under the Romans is 
only a record of wars and devastations. 

V. Kingdom of Pergamus. 

88. Beside the four great monarchies already described, a number- of 
smaller kingdoms arose from the ruins of Alexander’s empire. A few of 
these will be briefly mentioned. Pergamus, on the Caucus in Mysia, pos¬ 
sessed a strong fortress, which was used by Lysimachus as a place of safe 
keeping for his treasures, under the charge of Philetae'rus, of Tium, an 
officer in whom he reposed the greatest confidence. This person, provoked 
by ill-treatment from the Thracian queen, made himself independent, and 
by means of the ample treasures of Lysimachus, maintained his princi¬ 
pality undisturbed for twenty years, B. C. 283-263. (See U 30, 31.) 

His nephew, Eumenes, who succeeded him, increased his territories by 
a victory over Antiochus I., near Sardis. After reigning twenty-two years 
(B. C., 263-241), he was succeeded by his cousin, Attalus I., who gained a 
great victory over the Gauls, and, first of his family, took the title of king. 
Ten years later, he defeated Antiochus Hierax (see § 33), and included in 
his own dominions all the countries west of the Halys and north of the 
Taurus. In wars with the kings of Syria, he lost these conquests, and was 
limited for seven years to his own principality of Pergamus; but by the 
aid of Gallic mercenaries and his own good management, he won back 
most of the territories. He earned the favor of Rome by joining that 
Republic against Philip V. of Macedon. The country was ravaged by 
Philip in the interval of his Roman wars (see § 80); but the great victory 
off Chios compensated Attalus for his losses, and the treasures he amassed 
made his name proverbial for wealth. His exertions in behalf of his allies, 
during the second war of Rome and Macedon, ended his life at an advanced 
age, B. C. 197. 

89. Eumenes II., his eldest son and successor, aided the Roman opera¬ 
tions against the kings of Syria and Macedonia, with so much energy and 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


231 


talent, that he was rewarded with an increase of territory on both sides of 
the Hellespont, and his kingdom was for a time one of the greatest in Asia. 
He continued his lather’s liberal policy in the encouragement of art and 
literature, founded the great Library of Pergamus, which was second only 
to that of Alexandria, and beautified his capital with many magnificent 
buildings. At his death his crown was assumed by his brother, Attalus II. 
(Philadelphus), as the son of Eumenes was still a child. More than half 
the twenty-one years of Philadelphus’s reign were occupied by wars, 
especially against Pru'sias II., king of Bithynia. By aiding the revolt of 
Nicomedes, who gained that kingdom instead of his father, Attalus secured 
some years of peace, which he employed in building cities and increasing 
his library. Chief of the cities were EumenPa, in Phrygia; Philadelphia, 
in Lydia; and AttalPa, in Pamphylia. * 

90 . Philadelphus died B. C. 138, leaving the kingdom to his nephew, 
Attalus III. (1 hilometor), the son of Eumenes II. This king crowded 
into the short period of five years more crimes and atrocities than can be 
found in all the other reigns of his dynasty put together. He murdered 
all the old friends of his father and uncle, with their families; all who 
still held any office of trust in the kingdom; and, finally, his own nearest 
relatives, including his, mother, for whom he had professed the warmest 
affection by the surname he adopted. At last he retired from this atrocious 
career of misgovernment, to the more innocent pursuits of painting, sculp¬ 
ture, and gardening. He died of a fever, leaving his kingdom a legacy to 
the Roman people. Aristoni'cus, a half-brother of Attalus III., success¬ 
fully resisted the Roman claims for three years, even defeating and cap¬ 
turing Licin'ius Crassus, who was sent to take possession; but he was in 
turn made prisoner, and Pergamus was added to the territories of Rome, 
B. C. 130. 

VI. Bithynia. 

91 . This tributary province of Persia regained its independence upon 
the overthrow of that empire, and resisted all the efforts of Alexander’s 
generals to reduce it. Among its kings were Njcomedes I., who founded 
Nicomedia on the Propontis; Zeilas, who gained his crown by the aid of 
the Gauls; and Prusias, his son, who extended his kingdom by constant 
wars, and would have raised it to great importance but for the offense he 
gave the Romans, by making war against Pergamus and by sheltering 
Hannibal. He was forced to surrender to Eumenes some important terri¬ 
tories. 

Prusias II. suffered still greater disasters, owing to his own contemptible 
wickedness. He sent his son Nicomedes to Rome, with secret orders for 
his assassination. But the plot failed; and Nicomedes II., whose popularity 
had excited his father’s jealousy, now returned with the support of the 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


232 

Romans and the Pergamene king, and gained possession of the throne. 
He reigned fifty-eight years with the title Epiphanes (Illustrious). His 
son, Nicomedes III., in alliance with the Romans, made war seven yeais 
with Mithridates, king of Pontus, their most able and resolute opponent. 
He was twice expelled from his dominions; but after the close of the first 
Mithridatic War, he reigned peacefully ten years, and, having no children, 
left his kingdom to the Romans, B. C. 74. 

VII. Pontus. 

1)2. Cappadocia tinder the Persians had been a satrapy, governed by the 
descendants of that Ota'nes who conspired with Darius I. against the false 
Smerdis. (See Book II.) In 363 B. C., a son of the satrap Mithridates 
revolted, and made himself king of that portion of Cappadocia which lay 
next the sea, and was thence called Pontus by the Greeks. This kingdom 
was for a short time subject to the Macedonian power; but Mithridates I., 
in 318 B. C., became again independent. The annals of the next two 
reigns are of no great importance. Mithridates III. (B. C. 245-190) 
enlarged and strengthened his dominion by alliances with the Asiatic 
monarchs, as well as by wars. His son Phar'naces conquered Sinope 
from the Greeks, and made it his capital. The next king, Mithridates IV. 
(B. C. 160-120), aided Rome against Carthage and Pergamus, and was 
rewarded by the addition of the Greater Phrygia to his dominions. 

93. Mithridates V., the Great, came to the throne at the age of eleven 
years, his father having been murdered by some officers of the court. 
The young prince, distrusting his guardians, began in his earliest years to 
accustom himself to antidotes against poison, and to spend much of his 
time in hunting, which enabled him to take refuge in the most rough and 
inaccessible portions of his kingdom. He had, however, received a Greek 
education at Sinope; and when, at the age of twenty, he assumed the gov¬ 
ernment, he possessed not only a soul and body inured to every sort of 
peril and hardship, but a mind furnished with all the knowledge needful 
to a king. He spoke twenty-five languages, and could transact business 
with every tribe of his dominions, in its own peculiar dialect. 

The Romans had already seized his province of Phrygia, and he clearly 
saw the conflict which must soon take place with the all-absorbing Re¬ 
public. He determined, therefore, to extend his kingdom to the eastward 
and northward, thus increasing its power and wealth, so as to make it 
more nearly a match for its great western antagonist. In seven years he 
added to his dominions half the shores of the Black Sea, including the 
Cimmerian peninsula — now the Crimea —and extending westward to the 
Dniester. He made alliances with the wild and powerful tribes upon the 
Danube, and with the kings of Armenia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia. From 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


233 


the last two countries he afterward drove out their hereditary kings, placing 
his own son on the throne of Cappadocia, and Socrates, a younger brother 
of Nicomedes III., on that of Bithynia. 

94 . The Roman Senate now interfered, and with their favor Nicomedes 
invaded Pontus. Mithridates marched into Cappadocia and drove out its 
newly reinstated king; then into Bithynia, where he routed the army of 
Nicomedes and defeated the Romans. He speedily made himself master 
of all Asia Minor, except a few towns in the extreme south and west; and 
from his headquarters at Pergamus, gave orders for a general massacre of 
all Romans and Italians in Asia. Eighty thousand persons fell in conse¬ 
quence of this atrocious act, but from that moment the tide turned against 
Mithridates. Two large armies which he sent into Greece, were defeated 
by Sulla at Chseronea. A great battle in Bithynia was lost by the Pontic 
generals. Pontus itself was invaded, and its king became a fugitive. 

Peace was at length made, on terms most humiliating to Mithridates. 
He surrendered all his conquests, and a fleet of seventy vessels; agreed to 
pay 2,000 talents; and recognized the kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia, 
whom he had formerly expelled. The reverses of Mithridates naturally 
led the subject nations on the Euxine to throw off his yoke. He was pre¬ 
paring to march against them, when a second Roman war was kindled by 
a sudden and unprovoked aggression of Murena, the general of the Repub¬ 
lic in the East. The Romans were defeated on the Halys, and peace was 
restored, B. C. 82. 

95 . In the seven years’ breathing-space which followed, Mithridates 
subdued all his revolted subjects, and recruited his forces with the utmost 
energy. His army, drawn largely from the barbarous nations on the 
Danube and Euxine, was drilled and equipped according to the Roman 
system, and his navy was increased to four hundred vessels. Both the 
Pontic king and the Romans would willingly have remained some years 
longer at peace, but, in 74 B. C., the legacy of Bithynia to the latter power, 
by Nicomedes III., brought them into unavoidable collision. Mithridates 
first seized the country, and gained a double victory over Cotta, by sea and 
land. But he failed in the sieges of Chalcedon and Cyzicus, and in the 
second year he was repeatedly worsted by LucuPlus. His fleet was first 
defeated off Tenedos, and then wrecked by a storm. In the third year 
Mithridates was driven out of his own dominions, and those of his son-in- 
law, Tigranes. For three years the war was carried on in Armenia, where 
the two kings were twice defeated by Lucullus. 

In 68 B. C., Mithridates returned to his kingdom, and defeated the 
Romans twice within a few months. But in 66 B. C., Pompey assumed 
the command, and Mithridates, after the loss of nearly his whole army, 
abandoned Pontus, and retired into the barbarous regions north of the 
Euxine, where the Romans did not care to pursue him. With a spirit 


234 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


untamed either by years or misfortunes, he plotted the bold design of 
gathering to his standard the wild tribes along the Danube, and marching 
upon Italy from the north. But his officers did not share his enthusiasm. 
A conspiracy against him was headed by his own son; and the old king, 
deserted by all whom he would have trusted, attempted to end his life by 
poison. His constitution had been for many years so guarded by antidotes, 
that the drugs had no effect, and he was finally dispatched by one of his 
Gallic soldiers. Pontus became a Roman province, only a small portion 
of its territory continuing, a century or more, under princes of the ancient 
dynasty. 

VIII. Cappadocia. 

9(>. The southern part of Cappadocia remained loyal to the Persian 
kings until their downfall at Arbela. It was conquered by Perdiccas after 
the death of Alexander, but within six years became independent, and 

continued under native kings until it was 
absorbed into the Roman dominions, A. D. 
17. The history of these monarchs is of 
little importance, except so far as it is in¬ 
cluded in that of the neighboring nations. 
The fifth king, AriaraThes IV., made, in 
his later years, a close and friendly alliance 
with the Romans, which continued unbroken 
under his successors. 

Ariarathes V. (B. C. 131-96) presents the 
sole example of a “blameless prince” in 
the three centuries following Alexander. No 
act of deceit or cruelty is recorded against 
him. Cappadocia, under his reign, became 
a celebrated abode of philosophy, under the 
patronage and example of the king. With 
Ariarathes VIII., the royal Persian line be¬ 
came extinct, and the Cappadocians chose a 
new sovereign in Ariobarza'nes I. (B. C. 
93-64). This king was three times driven 
out of his dominions by the sovereigns of 
Armenia and Pontus, and three times rein¬ 
stated by the Romans. The last king, Archelaus (B. C. 36-A. D. 17), was 
summoned by Tibe'rius to Rome, where he died, and his kingdom became 
a Roman province. 

IX. Armenia. 

97. Armenia was included in the kingdom of the Seleucidte, from the 
battle of Ipsus to that of Magnesia, B. C. 190. Two generals of Anfiochus 



Coin of Ariarathes V., 
twice the size of original. 





























































































































THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


235 


III. then revolted against him, and set up the kingdoms of Armenia Major 
on the east, and Armenia Minor on the west of the Euphrates. The greatest 
king of Armenia Major was Tigranes I. (B. C. 96-55), who not only gained 
important victories from the Parthian monarch, but conquered all Syria, 
and held it fourteen years. He incurred the vengeance of Rome in various 
ways, but chiefly by sustaining his father-in-law, Mithridates, in his wars 
against the Republic. He suffered several calamitous defeats, with the loss 
of his capital, Tigran'ocer'ta. 

In 67 B. C., the disaffection of the Roman troops gave the two kings the 
opportunity to recover much of what they had lost. The appearance of the 
great Pompey upon the scene again turned the tide. The young Tigranes 
rebelled against his father, with the aid of Parthia and Rome. The king 
surrendered all his conquests, retaining only his hereditary kingdom of the 
Greater Armenia. His son, Artavas'des I. (B. C. 55-34), aided the expe¬ 
dition of Crassus against the Parthians; but having afterward offended 
Antony, he was taken prisoner and put to death by order of Cleopatra. 
Artaxias, his son, ordered a massacre of all the Romans in Armenia. In 
19 B. C., he was himself murdered by his own relations. The remaining 
kings were sovereigns only in name, being set up or displaced alternately 
by the Romans and Parthians, until Armenia was absorbed by the former, 
A. D. 114. Armenia Minor was usually a dependency of some neighboring 
kingdom, from the time of Mithridates to that of Vespasian (A. D. 69-79), 
when it, too, became a Roman province. 

X. Bactria. 

98. Bactria was a part of the Syrian empire from 305 to 255 B. C. 
Diodotus, the satrap, then made himself independent, and established a 
new Greek kingdom, the most easterly of all the scattered fragments of 
Alexander’s conquests. Euthydemus, the third king, was a native of 
Magnesia, and a usurper (B. C. 222-200). His son Demetrius made many 
victorious campaigns, extending over Afghanistan and into India (B. C. 
200-180). He lost a part of his native dominions to a rebel, Eucrat'ides, 
who reigned north of the Pa / ropam / isus range during the life of Deme¬ 
trius, and after his death, over the whole country. He, too, carried on 
Indian wars with great energy and success. Under his son, Heli'ocles 
(B. C. 160-150), the Bactrian kingdom rapidly declined, being invaded 
by the Parthian kings on the west, and the Tartar tribes from the 
north. 

XI. Parthian Empire of the Arsacid^:. 

99. The Parthians established their independence about B. C. 250, 
under the lead of the Scythian Arsaces. The people were of the same 
race with the modern Turks — treacherous in war, indolent and unaspiring 


236 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


in peace, rude in arts and barbarous in manners. Their warlike hardi¬ 
hood, however, gave the Romans a more troublesome resistance than they 
encountered in any other portion of Alexander's former empire; and the 
dominion of the Arsacidte lasted nearly 500 years, until it was overthrown 
by the new Persian kingdom, A. D. 226. The greatness of the Parthian 
empire dates from Mitliridates, who is also called Arsaces VI., B. C. 
174-136. The neighboring kingdom of Bactria, with its Greek monarchs 
and its higher civilization, had hitherto maintained the ascendency; but 
while these kings were absorbed in their Indian conquests, Mitliridates 

seized upon several of their provinces, and 
eventually absorbed their whole dominion. 

The Parthian empire, at its greatest extent, 
comprised all the countries between the Eu¬ 
phrates and the Indus; from the Araxes and 
the Caspian on the north, to the Persian 
Gulf and Indian Ocean on the south. Its 
numerous parts were not consolidated into 
one government, as were the satrapies of 
Persia or the provinces of Rome; but each 
nation, with its own laws and usages, re¬ 
tained its native king, who was tributary to 
the lord-paramount in the Arsacid family. 
Hence the Parthian coins, like the Assyrian 
monuments, commonly bear the title “ King 
of Kings.” The wars of Mithridates made 
the Euphrates the boundary-line between the 
Parthian and Roman empires. The wealth 
and power of the Oriental monarchy pro¬ 
voked at once the avarice and the jealousy 
of the western Republic, and a collision 
could not long be delayed. The details of 
the Parthian wars of Rome will be found in Book Y. 



Coin of Arsaces III., 
twice the size of original. 


EECAPITULATIOIT. 

Bravery and barbarism of the Thracians. Rise of Pergamus, B. C. 283. Reigns 
of Pliilotserus, Eumenes, Attalus I. Success and enlightened policy of Eumenes II. 
Wars of Attalus Philadelphus. His new cities. Crimes of Attalus III. Bequest 
of his kingdom to Rome. Short reign of Aristonicus. Bithynia ruled by Nicome- 
des I., Zeilas, Prusias I. and II., Nicomedes II. and III., B. C. 278-74. Rise of the 
kingdom of Pontus, B. C. 363. Independent of Macedon, B. C. 318; enlarged by 
Mithridates III. and Pliarnaces, B. C. 245-160. Education of Mithridates V., his 
conquests and alliances; first collision with the Romans, B. C. 88; massacre of 
80,000 Italians; disasters and humiliating peace. Second Roman War, B. C. 83 , 82 . 
Seven years’ drill of Pontic forces in Roman tactics. Third Roman War, B. C. 
74-65; Mithridates driven into Armenia, B. C. 71; recovered his kingdom, B. C. 68; 




























































































THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


237 


defeated by Pompey, B. C. 66; took refuge in the northern wilds, and ended his 
life by violence, B. C. 63. Pontus became a Roman province. Cappadocia in al¬ 
liance with Rome, B. C. 188. Just and peaceiul reign of Ariarathes V. End of the 
dynasty in Ariarathes VIII. Exiles and returns of Ariobarzanes I. The country 
absorbed into the Roman dominion, A. D. 17. Armenia a part of the Syrian 
empire, B. C. 301-190. “Greater” and “Lesser” kingdoms then formed on the 
east and west of the Euphrates. Conquest of Syria by Tigranes I., B. C. 83. His 
wars with Rome, B. C. 69-66. Losses. Fate of Artavasdes. Massacre of the Romans 
by Artaxias. Alternate dependence upon Rome and Parthia, B. C. 19-A. D. 114. 
Bactria dependent upon Syria, B. C. 305-255. Diodotus reigned, B. C. 255-237. The 
third king a Lydian, B. C. 222-200. Indian campaigns of Demetrius and Eucrat- 
idas, B. C. 200-160. Decline and fall of the kingdom under attacks of surrounding 
bai'barians, B. C. 160-80. Parthian empire powerful, but uncivilized. Absorption 
of Bactrian provinces, B. C. 174-136. A group of kingdoms, rather than a nation, 
side by side with Rome. 


XII. Judaea. 

100 . Judaea, with the rest of Syria, had been assigned to Laom'edon 
upon the partition of Alexander’s conquests; but it was soon annexed by 
Ptolemy Soter, and continued 117 years a part of the Egyptian empire. 
Its history in this Book will be considered in three periods: 

I. From the Fall of the Persian Empire to the Pise of an Inde¬ 
pendent Jewish Kingdom, B. C. 323-168. 

II. The Time of the Maccabees, B. C. 168-37. 

III. The Time of the Herods, B. C. 37-A. D. 44. 

First Period. Under the first three Ptolemies, the Jews were peaceful 
and prosperous. The high priest was at the head of the state, and in 
local matters ruled with little interference from Egypt. Ptolemy Philo- 
pator, however, a wicked and foolish prince, attempted to profane the 
temple, and the Jews, in alarm, sought protection from Antiochus the 
Great. That monarch, with their aid, gained possession of all the coast 
between Upper Syria and the Desert of Sinai; and though often disputed, 
and once recovered by the Egyptians, this district remained a part of the 
Syrian kingdom. 

101 . For thirty years the privileges of the Jews were respected by 
their new sovereigns; but toward the close of his reign, Seleucus IV. 
resolved to appropriate the sacred treasures of the temple to his own 
pressing needs, and sent Heliodorus, his treasurer, for this purpose to 
Jerusalem. According to the Jewish tradition,* three angels appeared 
for the defense of the holy place. One of them was seated on a terrible 
horse, which trampled Heliodorus under its feet, while the others scourged 
him until he fell lifeless to the ground. He was only restored by th« 
prayers of the high priest, and the treasury remained unmolested. 


* Read, in the Apocrypha, 2 Maccabees iii: 4-40. 



238 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Antiochus Epiphanes, the brother and successor of Seleucus, was guilty 
of still more impious outrages. He put up the high priesthood at 
auction, and twice awarded it to the highest bidder, on condition of his 
introducing Greek rites and customs into Jerusalem. One of these mer¬ 
cenary pontiffs stole the sacred vessels of the temple and sold them at 
Tyre. An insurrection arose at Jerusalem, but it was punished by An¬ 
tiochus in person, who seized the city, set up an altar to Zeus Olympius, 
with daily sacrifices of swine’s flesh in the sacred inclosure of the temple, 
and put to death a great number of the people. Two years later, B. C. 
168,. he ordered a general massacre of the Jews, and by a frightful per¬ 
secution sought to exterminate the last remnant of the ancient religion. 
The Asmonse'an family now arose, and by their brave fidelity made 
themselves at last sovereigns of Judaea. 

102 . Second Period. Mattathias, a priest, living between Jerusalem 
and Joppa, killed with his own hand the king’s officer who was sent to 
enforce the heathen sacrifices, together with the first renegade Jew who 
consented to offer. He then took refuge in the mountains with his five 
sons, and was reinforced daily by fugitives from various parts of Judaea. 
As their numbers increased, this band issued frequently from their fast¬ 
nesses, cut off detachments of the Syrian army, destroyed heathen altars, 
and in many places restored the Jewish worship in the synagogues. The 
aged Mattathias died in the first year of the war, and was succeeded in 
command of the forces by his third son, Judas, who obtained the name 
of Maccabceus from his many victories. 

During the disputes for the Syrian regency, which followed the death 
of Antiochus Epiphanes (see $ 40, 41), Judas Maccabseus gained pos¬ 
session of all Jerusalem, except the citadel on Mount Zion, and held it 
three years. He purified the temple, restored the incense, lights, and 
sacrifices, and drove out Syrians and Hellenizing Jews from every part 
of Judaea. The Syrian general, Nicanor, was twice defeated with great 
loss. In the second battle, near Beth-horon, Nicanor fell, and his whole 
army was cut to pieces. The Romans made alliance with the Maccabees; 
but before their aid could arrive, Judas had fallen in battle, B. C. 160. 
Jerusalem was lost, and for fourteen years Jonathan Maccabseus could 
.only carry on a guerrilla warfare from his fastness in the Desert of 
Teko'ah. The disputes for the Syrian throne, between Demetrius and 
Alexander Balas, which were continued under their sons (see $$ 42-46), 
•gave a respite to the Jews, and even made their alliance an object of 
.desire to both parties. Jonathan was thenceforth recognized as prince 
; and high priest, with full possession of the Holy City. 

103 . His brother Simon succeeded him in both dignities, and under 
his prosperous administration Judsea recovered, in great measure, from 
the long-continued ravages of war. The life of Simon was ended by 


THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 


239 


treachery. His son-in-law, Ptolemy, the governor of Jericho, desiring to 
seize the government for himself, murdered the high priest and two of 
his sons at a banquet. But the other son, John Hyrcanus, escaped and 
succeeded his father. At the beginning of his reign, Jerusalem endured 
a long and painful siege by Antiochus Sidetes, B. C. 135-133. Its walls, 
which had been restored, were leveled with the ground; and a tribute 
was again demanded, which lasted, however, no longer than the life of 
Sidetes. Hyrcanus captured Samaria, and destroyed the temple on Mount 
Gerizim (see Book II, § 64). He conquered Id'ume'a, rendering Judaea 
fully equal in power to Syria, which was now reduced from a great 
empire to a petty and exhausted kingdom. 

104 . Aristobu'lus, son of Hyrcanus, was the first of the family who 
assumed the title of king. He reigned but a year, and was succeeded by 
his brother, Alexander Jannae'us (B. C. 105-78). This prince was a Sad- 
ducee, and the opposite sect of the Pharisees stirred up a mob to attack 
him, while officiating as high priest in the Feast of Tabernacles. The riot 
was put down with a slaughter of 6,000 insurgents. Alexander gained vic¬ 
tories over the Moabites and the Arabs of Gilead; but in a subsequent 
war with the latter he suffered a great defeat, and the malcontents at 
home seized the occasion for a new outbreak. The civil war now raged 
six years. For a time Alexander was driven to the mountains, but at 
length he regained the ascendency, and revenged himself upon the rebels 
with frightful cruelty. He left the crown to his widow, Alexandra, who 
joined the Pharisees, and was maintained in power by their influence. 

105 . After her death, her two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, quarreled 
seven years for the sovereignty. Pompey the Great, who was then at 
Damascus, interfered and captured Jerusalem, carried off Aristobulus to 
Pome, and established the elder brother in the government. He reigned 
six years in peace, B. C. 63-57. In the latter year Aristobulus escaped, 
and being joined by many of his partisans, renewed the war. He was 
besieged and taken in Machae'rus by the Roman proconsul, who also 
deposed Hyrcanus, and set up a sort of oligarchy in Jerusalem. Pompey, 
in taking the city, had left its sacred treasures untouched, but during 
this period, Crassus, on his way to Parthia, seized and plundered the 
temple. After ten years (B. C. 57-47), Hyrcanus was restored to the 
high priesthood, while his friend Antipater, the Idumaean, was appointed 
procurator, or civil governor, of Judaea. 

In B. C. 40, Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, with the aid of a Parthian 
force, captured Jerusalem and reigned three years, the last of the Asmo- 
naean princes. Antipater had been poisoned; his son Herod repaired to 
Rome, and received from the Senate the title of King of Judaea. Return¬ 
ing speedily, he conquered Galilee and advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. 
This was protracted several years, for the Jews were firmly attached to 


240 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Antigonus, and resented equally the interference of Rome and the reign 
of an Edomite. After hard fighting the walls were taken, and the king 
was executed like a common criminal. 

10G. Third Period, B. C. 37-A. D. 44. Herod was justly surnamed 
“ the Great,” for his talents and the grandeur of his enterprises, though 
his character was stained by the worst faults of a tyrant, cruelty and 
reckless caprice. At the age of fifteen he had been made governor of 
Galilee by Julius Ctesar, and had ruled with great energy and success, 
suppressing the banditti who infested the country, and putting their 
leaders to death. He began his reign in Judaea by a massacre of all 
who had been opposed to him, especially those whose wealth would best 
enable him to reward his Roman benefactors. The Temple, which, being 
used as a fortress, had been nearly destroyed in the repeated sieges, was- 
rebuilt, by his orders, with a magnificence which rivaled the glories of 
Solomon. His liberality was equally shown during a famine which visited 
Judsea and the surrounding countries. He bought immense quantities- 
of corn in Egypt, and fed the entire people at his own expense, beside 
supplying several provinces with seed for the next harvest. 

Herod affected Roman tastes: he built a circus and amphitheater in a 
suburb of Jerusalem, where games and combats of wild beasts were cele¬ 
brated in honor of the emperor Augustus. To show his impartiality, he 
restored the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim, while he adorned hi& 
new and magnificent city of Csesare'a with imposing shrines of the Roman 
gods. This universal tolerance was most unpleasing to the Jews, and their 
disposition to revolt was only kept down by the vigilance of innumerable 
spies, and the construction of a chain of fortresses around Jerusalem. 

107. The last two members of the Asmonaean family were MarianTne 
and Aristobulus, grandchildren of Hyrcanus II. Herod married the 
former, and bestowed upon the latter the office of high priest; but the 
great popularity of the young prince alarmed his jealousy, and he caused 
him to be secretly assassinated. Though devotedly attached to Mariamne, 
Herod twice ordered her put to death in case of his own decease, during 
perilous expeditions for which he was leaving the capital. These atrocious 
orders coming to the knowledge of the queen, naturally increased the 
aversion for Herod which had been inspired by the murder of her grand¬ 
father and her brother. 

Her high spirit scorned concealment; she was brought to trial, and her 
bitter enemies persuaded Herod to consent to her execution. But the 
violence of his grief and remorse kept him a long time on the verge 
of insanity, and a raging fever nearly ended his life. His temper, 
which had been generous though hasty, now became so ferocious that 
his best friends were often ordered to death on the slightest suspicion. 
Three of his sons were executed on charges of conspiracy. From his 


Herod's Porch. Solomon’s Porch. Castle of Antonia 



TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM, AS REBUILT BY HEROD. 







































































































































































































































































































































































































THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE . 


241 


deatli-bed he ordered a massacre of the infants in Bethlehem, because 
wise men from the East had informed him that in that little village 
the Messiah was born. About the same time, he had set up a golden 
eagle over the gate of the lemple. A sedition immediately arose, and 
its leaders were punished with atrocious cruelty, by the command of the 
dying king. Herod died in the same year with the birth of our Lord, 
which the common chronology places, by an error, B. C. 4. 

108. His dominions, except Abilene in Syria, were divided among his 
three sons, Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip, the eldest receiving Judaea and 
Samaria. He reigned so oppressively that he was removed by the Romans, 
A. D. 8; and until A. D. 36, the province was managed by procurators, 
or governors, subject to the praefects of Syria. Under the fifth of these, 
Pontius Pilate, Christ was crucified by Roman authority, through the accu¬ 
sations of the chief officers of the Jews. Herod Antipas was meanwhile 
ruling in Galilee (B. C. 4-A. D. 39; see Luke xxiii: 6-12), and Philip in 
TrachonPtis (B. C. 4-A. D. 37; see Mark vi: 17, 18). When these prov¬ 
inces became vacant, they were bestowed by the Emperor Caligula upon 
his favorite, Herod Agrip'pa I., grandson of Herod the Great and Mari- 
amne. A. D. 41, Samaria and Judtea were also added to his dominions, 
which for three years covered the entire territory of Herod the Great. 

109. Agrippa began to persecute the Christians in the year 44, and the 
Romans again placed Judaea under the government of procurators. Ges- 
sius Florus, the sixth of the new series, was a cruel and crafty tyrant, who 
plundered his province without pity or shame. He shared the spoils of 
highway robbers, whom he permitted and even encouraged. Twice he 
stirred up riots in Jerusalem, sacrificing the lives of thousands of people, 
only that he might avail himself of the confusion to pillage the Temple. 

His atrocities at length drove the Jews to open revolt. A Roman army 
of 100,000 men, commanded by Titus, the son of the emperor Vespasian, 
besieged the Holy City five months. The three walls, the fortress of Mount 
Zion, and the Temple had each to be taken by separate assault; and never 
was a siege more memorable for the obstinacy of the resistance. The Temple 
was surrendered Sept. 8, 70. All the people who had not perished by the 
hardships of the siege, were made slaves and divided among the victors as. 
prizes. Large colonies were transported into the heart of Germany or to 
Italy, where the golden vessels of the Temple adorned the triumphal pro¬ 
cession of Titus at Rome. No ancient city of any fame was ever so com¬ 
pletely ruined as Jerusalem. Mount Zion was plowed as a field and sown 
with salt, and the buildings of the Temple were leveled to the ground. 

RECAPITULATIOIT. 

Judaea subject to Egypt, B. C. 320-203; to Syria, B. C. 203-168. Persecution by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, and revolt of Mattatliias, B. C. 168. Victories of Judas 
Maccabaeus, B. C. 166-160. Jonathan prince and high priest, B. C. 160-143. Pros- 

A. H.—16. 


242 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


perous reign of Simon, B. C. 143-135. Siege and capture of Jerusalem bv Anti- 
ochus Sidetes, B. C. 135-133. Conquests of John Hyrcanus, B. C. 135-103. Aristobu- 
lus I. takes the royal title. Civil wars of Pharisees and Sadducees, under 
Alexander Jannaeus, B. C'. 105-78. Reign of Alexandra, B. C. 78-69. Hyrcanus 11., 
B. C. 69, 6S. Aristobulus 11., B. C. 68-63. Jerusalem taken by Pompey, who awards 
the sovereignty to Hyrcanus. After six years, Hyrcanus deposed and an oligarchy 
set up, B. C. 57-47. Jerusalem plundered by Crassus, B. C. 54. Antipater, the Idu- 
maean, governor, B. C. 47-40, while Hyrcanus is again high priest. Antigonus 
prince and priest, B. C. 40-37. Herod, son of Antipater, invested at Rome with 
the royalty of Judaea, conquers Galilee, and by a long siege takes Jerusalem, 
B. C. 37. His greatness and tyranny. His public works. Execution of Queen 
Mariamne, B. C. 29. “ Murder of the Innocents,” and death of Herod, B. C. 4. 
Division of his kingdom into tetrarchies. Archelaus succeeded in liis govern¬ 
ment by Roman governors, A. D. 8-36. The Crucifixion, A. D. 29 or 30. Four 
provinces united under Herod Agrippa, A. D. 41. Procurators restored, A. D. 44. 
Gessius Florus, A. D. 65, 66. Siege and capture of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. 


QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
Book IV. 


1. Describe the rise of Macedonia. 

2. The successive steps of the ascendency of Philip. 

3. The youth, education, and character of Alexander. 

4. His conquests and Asiatic policy. 

5. His projects and death, . 

6. The war of the regents. 

7. What was done by Antipater ?. 

8. By Antigonus and his son ?. 

9. What became of the near relatives of Alexander? 

10. What were the results of the battle of Ipsus? .... 

11. Effects upon Europe and Asia of Alexander’s conquests? . 


. 1 , 2 . 

2-5. 

. 6, 7. 

8-12, 14-17. 
18. 

19. 

19, 20, 66, 67. 
20, 22-25, 29, 68. 
21-23. 

25. 

26, 27. 


12. Describe the extent and organization of the kingdom of Seleucus. . . 28-30. 

13. Name the Seleucidae, and relate one incident of each. 28-48. 

14. Describe in detail the reign of Antiochus the Great. 34-37, 100. 

15- The last but one of the kings of Syria. 48, 97. 

16. The incursions of the Gauls..31, 70, 71. 

17 - The condition of Egypt under the Ptolemies. ... 49, 51, 54. 

18. Alexandria and its schools. 52, 58. 

The conquests of the first three Ptolemies. .... 50, 54, 56. 

20 - The character of their successors. 56, 57, 60, 62-65. 

21. What was the result to Athens of the Lamian War?.66. 

22 . What became of the sons of Cassander?. 67. 

23. How many kings of Thrace and Macedonia B. C. 281 ? .... 69, 70. 

24. Describe the two reigns of Antigonus Gonatas. 72, 74. 

25. The character of Pyrrhus. 72, 73. 

26. Tell the histoi-y of the Achaean League. 75-79, 82, 86. 


27. What occurred in Sparta during the Macedonian regency of Antigonus 
Doson ? ........ 

















QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 


243 


28. Describe the character and reign of Philip V..78-81, 83. 

29. ' The successive interventions of the Romans in affairs of 

Macedonia and Greece. 76, 79, 81-83, 85, 86. 


30. The last of the Antigonidae.84. 

31. How many kings of other families or nations reigned in Macedonia 

during the Third Period? 

32. Describe the Thracians.87. 

33. The origin and history of Pergamus. 88-90. 

34. Of Bithynia.91. 

35. The early history of Pontus.. . 92. 

36. Tell the story of Mithridates V. 93-95. 

37. Describe Cappadocia..96. 

38. Tell in brief the history of Armenia, B. C. 301-A. D. 114.97. 

39. Describe the most easterly of the Greek kingdoms in Asia. ... 98. 

40. The character and history of the Parthians.99. 

41. How was Judaea governed, B. C. 323-168?.100, 101. 

42. Describe its condition under the Syrian kings.101. 

43. The rise and reign of the Maccabees.. 102-105. 

44. The character of Herod, and the great events of his reign. . 106, 107. 

45. How were his dominions distributed B. C. 4-A. D. 44?.108. 

46. Describe the last twenty-six years of Jewish history.109. 

47. How many battles have been described at Bethlioron? 

48. How many at Thermopylae? 

49. How many at Mantinea? 

50. How many at Salamis in Cyprus? 

51. How many at Chaeronea? 























. 













































f 




. 




























* 






















BOOK V, 


History of Home, from the Earliest Times to the Fall 
of the Western Empire, A. D. 476 . 

GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY. 

1. Italy, bounded by the Alps, and the Adriatic, Ionian, and Tyrrhe'- 
nian seas, is the smallest of the three peninsulas of southern Europe. It 
is inferior to Greece in the number of its harbors and littoral islands, but 
excels it in the richness and extent of its plains and fertile mountain¬ 
sides, being thus better fitted for agriculture and the rearing of cattle than 
for maritime interests. Still, from its long and narrow shape, Italy has 
an extended coast-line; the slopes of the Apennines abounded, in ancient 
times, with forests of oak suitable for ship-timber; and the people, especially 
of EtriEria, were early attracted to the sea. 

2. The Alps, which separate Italy from the rest of Europe, have had an 
important effect upon her history. At present they are traversed securely 
by less than a dozen roads, which are among the wonders of modern en¬ 
gineering. In early times they formed a usually effectual barrier against 
the barbarous nations on the north and west. The Apennines leave the 
Alpine range near the present boundary between Italy and France, and 
extend in a south-easterly and southerly direction to the end of the penin¬ 
sula, throwing off lateral ridges on both sides to the sea, and forming that 
great variety of surface and climate which is the peculiar charm of the 
country. A multitude of rivers contribute vastly to the fertility of the soil, 
though, from their short and rapid course, they are of little value for navi¬ 
gation. Varro preferred the climate of Italy to that of Greece, as pro¬ 
ducing in perfection every thing good for the use of man. No barley 
could be compared with the Campa'nian, no wheat with the Apu'lian, no 
rye with the FaleBnian, no oil with the Vena'fran. 

8. Northern Italy lies between the Swiss Alps and the Upper 
Apennines, and is almost covered by the great plain of the Po, which is 
one of the most fertile regions of Europe. It comprised, in the most 

(245) 



246 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


ancient times, the three countries of Liguria, Upper Etruria, and Venecia. 
The second of these divisions, together with some portions of the Ligurian 
and Venetian territories, was conquered, in the sixth century before Christ, 
by a Celtic population from the north and west, and was thenceforth known 
as Cisalpine Gaul. The region north of the Apennines does not belong to 
Roman or even Italian history until about the time of the Christian Era, 
when it became incorporated in the territories of Rome. 

4. The peninsula proper is divided into the two regions of central and 
southern Italy, by a line drawn from the mouth of the Tifer'nus, on the 
Adriatic, to that of the Sil'arus, on the western coast. Central Italy 
comprised six countries, of which three, Etruria, La / tium, and Campania, 
were on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and three others, Um'bria, Pice'num, and the 
Sabine country, on the Adriatic. Etruria was, in the earliest times, the 
most important division of Italy proper. It was separated from Liguria 
by the river Macra; from Cisalpine Gaul, by the Apennines; and from 
Umbria, the Sabine territory, and Latium, by the Tiber. 

Latium, lying south of Etruria, was chiefly a low plain; but its surface 
was varied by spurs of the Apennines on the north, and by the VoEscian 
and Alban ranges of volcanic origin in the center and south. It included 
the Roman Campagna, now a solitary and almost treeless expanse, con¬ 
sidered uninhabitable from the noxious exhalations of the soil, but during 
and before the flourishing period of Rome, the site of many populous cities. 
Several foreign tribes occupied portions of the Latin territory, among 
whom the Volsci, on the mountains which bear their name, and the 
JEqui, north of Prsenes'te, were best worthy of mention. In the view of 
history, a cluster of low hills — seven east and three west of the Tiber — 
which constitute in later ages the site of Rome, is not only the most im¬ 
portant part of Latium, but that which gives its significance to all the 
rest. 

5. Campania was a fertile and delightful region, extending from the 
Liris to the Silarus, and from the Apennines to the sea. Greek and 
Roman writers never wearied of celebrating the excellence of its harbors, 
the beauty of its landscape, the exuberant richness of its soil, and the en¬ 
chanting softness of its air. The coast is varied by the isolated cone of 
Vesuvius and a range of volcanic hills, including the now extinct crater 
of Solfata'ra. Umbria was a mountainous country east of Etruria. Before 
the coming of the Gauls, it extended northward to the Rubicon and east¬ 
ward to the Adriatic; but its coast was wholly conquered by that people, 
who drove the Umbrians beyond the mountains. 

Picenum consisted of a flat, fertile plain along the Adriatic, and a hilly 
region, consisting of twisted spurs of the Apennines, in the interior. Poets 
praised the apples of Picenum, and its olives w T ere among the choicest in 
Italy. The Sabine territory, at its greatest extension, was 200 miles in 


GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY. 


247 


length, and reached nearly from sea to sea. It was inhabited by many 
tribes, probably of common origin. Beside the Sabines proper, were the 
Sani'nites, the Frenta'ni, and the Marsi, Mar'rucFni, Pelig / ni, and Ves- 
ti / ni, who formed the League of the Four Cantons. The Sabine country, 
though rough, was fertile, and its wine and oil chiefly supplied the common 
people of Rome. 

0. Southern Italy included four countries: Luca'nia and Brut'tium 
on the west, Apulia and Cala / bria on the east. Lucania is a picturesque 
and fertile country, watered by many rivers. Bruttium is of similar char¬ 
acter, and was especially valued in old times for its pine forests, which, 
from their timber and pitch, yielded an important revenue to the Roman 
government. Both countries attracted multitudes of Greek colonists, whose 
cities early rose to a high degree of wealth and civilization. (See Book 
III, 87, 90.) Apulia , unlike any other division of central or southern 
Italy, consists chiefly of a rich, unbroken plain, from twenty to forty miles 
in width, gently sloping from the mountains to the sea. In ancient times 
it maintained great numbers of horses and sheep, the latter of which were 
famed for the fineness of their wool. When the plain became parched by 
summer heats, the flocks were driven to the neighboring mountains of 
Samnium; while, in winter, the Samnite flocks forsook their bleak and 
snowy heights to find pasturage in the rich meadows of Apulia. The 
northern portion of Apulia is mountainous, being traversed by two strong 
spurs of the Apennines, one of which projects into the sea and forms the 
rocky headland of Mount Garga'nus. 

Calabria ,* called by the Greeks Iapyg / ia or Messa'pia, occupied the 
long peninsula which is commonly called the heel of Italy. Its soft lime¬ 
stone soil quickly absorbs moisture, rendering the country arid, and the 
heats of summer intense. The products of the soil were, however, in 
ancient times, abundant and of great value. Its oil, wine, and honey were 
widely celebrated, the wool afforded by its flocks was of the finest quality, 
and tire horses which recruited the Tarentine cavalry were among the most 
excellent in the world. 

7. Italy possessed three islands of great importance: Sicily, noted for 
its excellent harbors and inexhaustible soil; Sardinia, for its silver mines 
and harvests of grain; and Cor'sica, for its dense forests of pine and fir. 
The position as well as the valuable productions of these islands, early 
tempted the enterprise of both Greeks and Carthaginians; and rivalry in 
their possession first drew these nations into hostility with each other, and 
with the ultimately victorious power of Rome. 


* It should be noticed that the name Calabria is now applied to the other 
peninsula of southern Italy, that which included the ancient Bruttium. The 
name was changed about the eleventh century of the Christian Era, 




248 


ANCIENT HISTORY . 


HISTORY OF ROME. 

8. Our history in this Book falls naturally into three divisions: 

I. The Roman Kingdom, .B. C. 753-510. 

II. The Roman Republic, . “ 510-30. 

III. The Roman Empire, . “ 30-A. D. 476. 

The records of the First Period, so far as they relate to persons, are 
largely mixed with fable, and it is impossible to separate the fanciful 
from the real. The student is recommended to read the stories of the 
kings, in their earliest and most attractive form, in Dr. Arnold’s History 
of Rome. Under their beautiful mythical guise, these legends present, 
doubtless, a considerable amount of truth. Our limits only admit a state¬ 
ment of the popular ancient belief concerning the rise of Rome, among the 
other and older nations which inhabited Italy. 

9. Central and southern Italy were occupied, from the earliest known 
times, by three races, the Etrus'cans, Italians, and Iapygians. The 
latter were nearly related to the Greeks, as has been proved by their 
language and the identity of their objects of worship. They therefore 
mingled readily with the Hellenic settlers (see $ 6), and Greek civilization 
quickly took root and flourished throughout southern Italy. The Italians 
proper — so called because, when united, they became the ruling race in 
Italy — arrived later in the peninsula than the Iapygians. They came 
from the north, and crowded into closer quarters the half-Hellenic inhab¬ 
itants of the south. They consisted of four principal races: the Umbrians, 
Sabines, Oscans, and Latins. Of these the first three were closely con¬ 
nected, while the Latins were distinct. The latter formed a confederacy 
of thirty cities, or cantons, and met every year on the Alban Mount to 
offer a united sacrifice to Jupiter Latia'ris, the protecting deity of the 
Latin race. During this festival wars were suspended, as in Elis during 
the Olympic Games. 

10. The Etruscans, or Tuscans, were wholly different in language, 
appearance, and character from the other nations of Italy. Their origin 
is wrapped in mystery. Some suppose them to have been Turanian, and 
thus allied to the Lapps, Finns, and Estho / nians of northern Europe, 
and the Basques of Spain; others, and the greater number, believe the 
mass of the people to have been Pelasgi — that race which overspread 
Greece and Italy at a remoter period than history can reach — but to 
have been absorbed and enslaved by a more powerful people from the 
north, who called themselves Reis'ena, while they were named by others 
Etruscans. History first finds these invaders in Rhae'tia, the country about 
the head-waters of the Ad / ige, the Danube, and the Rhine; then traces 
them to the plain of the Po, where, at a very early period, they formed 





HISTORY OF ROME. 


249 


a league of twelve cities; and thence south of the Apennines into Tus'- 
cany, which, reduced in limits, still bears their name. 

Here they formed a similar but quite distinct confederacy of the same 
number of cities. For a time their dominion extended across the penin¬ 
sula, and their fleets commanded both the “Upper” and the “Lower 
Sea,” the latter of which derived from them its ancient name, Tyrrhe¬ 
nian. They conquered Campania, and built there a third cluster of twelve 
cities, of which Cap'ua was the chief; but they lost this portion of their 
territory in wars with the Samnites. Many relics of Etruscan art exist, 
in the massive walls of their cities, their castings in bronze, figures in 
terra-cotta, and golden chains, bracelets, and other ornaments, which 
prove them to have been a luxurious and wealthy people. Their religion 
was of a gloomy and superstitious character. They sought to know the 
will of their gods by auguries drawn from thunder and lightning, from 
the flight of birds, or from the entrails of slain beasts; and to avert their 
wrath by sacrifices prescribed and regulated by an elaborate ritual. To 
learn these rites formed a large part of the education of a young Tuscan 
noble. 

11 . The Romans, who were destined to be for nearly twelve centuries 
the dominant race of Italy and the world, belonged to the Latin branch 
of the Italian family. A Greek tradition celebrated by Virgil, and be¬ 
lieved by most Romans in the days of the empire, traced their origin 
to a company of Trojan emigrants, led to the shores of Italy by iEne'as, 
son of Anchises, after the fall of Troy. (See Book III, $ 14.) But the 
Latin coast was at that time densely populated, and the new comers, if 
any such there were, must soon have been absorbed and lost among the 
■older inhabitants. 

12 . The common legends assigned the building of Rome to Rom / ulus, 
grandson of NuTnitor, an Alban prince. Numitor had been deprived 
of his crown by his brother Amu'lius, who also killed the son of the 
deposed king, and compelled his daughter Silvia to become a vestal. 
Beloved of Mars, she became, however, the mother of Romulus and 
Remus, whereupon her uncle caused her to be thrown, with her twin 
sons, into the Anio, a tributary of the Tiber. The rivers had overflowed 
their banks; when they subsided, the cradle containing the infant princes 
was overturned at the foot of the Palatine Mount. Nourished by a wolf, 
and fed by a woodpecker sacred to Mars, they grew to be hardy young 
shepherds, and distinguished themselves in combats with wild beasts and 
robbers. 

At the age of twenty they became aware of their royal birth, and 
having conquered Amulius, restored their grandfather to his throne. 
But they still loved the home of their youth, and resolved to build a 
new city on the banks of the Tiber. The brothers, differing in their 


250 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


choice of a site, consulted the auspices. After watching all night, 
Remus, at dawn, saw six vultures; but Romulus, at sunrise, saw twelve. 
The majority of the shepherds voted the decision to Romulus, and it was 
ever after believed that the twelve vultures denoted twelve centuries, 
during which the dominion of the city should endure. 

13. His shepherd comrades being too few to satisfy his ambition,. 
Romulus offered asylum on the Cap'itoline to homicides and runaway 
slaves, thus enrolling among his subjects the refuse of the neighboring 
tribes. To obtain wives for these adventurers, he invited the Latins and 
Sabines to witness games in honor of Neptune; and when not only men, 
but women and children were assembled, the runners and wrestlers 
rushed into the crowd and carried away whom they would. War fol¬ 
lowed, in which the Latins were thrice defeated. The Sabine king, 
Titus Tatius, marched with a powerful army upon Rome, obtained pos¬ 
session of the Capitoline fortress through the treachery of the maiden 
Tarpe'ia, the daughter of its commander, and nearly defeated the forces 
of Romulus in a long and obstinate battle. 

The Sabine women, however, now reconciled to their fate, came between 
their fathers and husbands, beseeching them with tears to be reconciled, 
since, whoever should be conquered, the grief and loss must be their own. 
A lasting peace was made, and the two kings agreed to reign jointly 
over the united nations, Romulus holding his court on the Palatine, and 
Titus Tatius on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills. After the death of 
Tatius, Romulus ruled alone. At the end of a prosperous reign of thirty- 
seven years, he was reviewing his troops one day in the Field of Mars, 
when the sun became suddenly darkened, a tempest agitated earth and 
air, and Romulus disappeared. The people mourned him as dead, but 
they were comforted by his appearing in a glorified form to one of their 
number, assuring him that the Romans should become lords of the world, 
and that he himself, under the name of QuirFnus, would be their 
guardian. 

14. After a year’s interregnum, Numa, a Sabine of wise and peaceful 
character, was chosen king. He was revered in after ages as the relig¬ 
ious founder of Rome, no less than Romulus as the author of its civil 
and military institutions. The wisdom and piety of his Havs were 
attributed to the nymph Ege'ria, who met him by a fountain in a grove, 
and dictated to him the principles of good government. The few records 
of this king and his predecessor belong rather to mythology than 
to history. 

15. Tullus HostiKius, the third king of Rome, is the first of whose 
deeds we have any trustworthy account. He conquered Alba Longa, and 
transferred its citizens to the Cae'lian Hill in Rome. This new city then 
became the protectress of the Latin League, with the right of presiding 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


251 


at the annual festival, though it was never, like Alba, a member of the 
League, but a distinct power in alliance with it. The federal army was 
commanded alternately by a Roman and a Latin general; and the lands 
acquired in the wars of the League were equally divided between the 
two contracting parties, thus giving to Rome, it is evident, a far greater 
share than to any other city. 

16. The citizens of consolidated Rome now constituted three tribes: 
the Ram'nes , or original Romans, on the Palatine; the Tit'ies, or Sabines, 
on the Capitoline and Quirinal; and the Lu'ceres, on the Caelian. Each 
tribe consisted of ten cu'rice, or wards, and each curia of ten houses, or 
clans ( gentes ). The patrician, or noble, houses, which alone enjoyed the 
rights of citizenship, thus numbered three hundred. The heads of all the 
houses constituted the Senate, while the Comit'ia Curiafta, or public 
assembly, included all citizens of full age. 

Rome, at this period, contained only two classes beside the Patricians. 
These were the clients and slaves. The former were the poorer people 
who belonged to no gens, and therefore, though free, had no civil rights. 
They were permitted to choose a patron in the person of some noble, 
who was bound to protect their interests, if need were, in courts of law. 
The client, on the other hand, followed his patron to war as a vassal; 
contributed to his ransom, or that of his children, if taken prisoners; 
and paid part of the costs of any lawsuit in which the patron might be 
engaged, or of his expenses in discharging honorable offices in the state. 
The relation on either side descended from father to son. It was es- 

t 

teemed a glory to a noble family to have a numerous clientage, and to 
increase that which it had inherited from its ancestors. The clients bore 
the clan-name * of their patron. Slaves were not numerous in the days 
of the kings. During the Republic, multitudes of captives were brought 
into the market by foreign wars; and at the close of that period, at 
least half the inhabitants of Roman territory were bondsmen. 

17. Ancus Mai^tius conquered many Latin towns, and transported 
their citizens to Rome, where he assigned them the Aventine Hill as a 
residence. Of these new settlers some became clients of the nobility, 
but the wealthier class scorned this dependent condition, and relied upon 
the protection of the king. Hence arose a new order in the state, the 
Plebs, or commonalty, which was destined to become, in later times, 
equally important with the nobility. It included, beside the conquered 


* A Patrician had at least three names: his own personal appellation, as Ca'ius, 
Marcus, or Lu'cius; the name of his clan, and the name of his family. Many 
Romans had a fourth name, derived from some personal peculiarity or memora¬ 
ble deed. Thus Pub'lius Corne'lius Scip'io Africa'nus belonged to the Cornelian 
gens, the Scipio family, and received a surname from his brilliant achievements 
in Africa. His clients bore the name Cornelius. 




252 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


people, foreign settlers who came for trade, for refuge, or for employment 
in the army; clients whose protecting families had become extinct; and 
sons of patricians who had married wives of inferior rank. Ancus ex¬ 
tended the Roman territory to the sea; built the port-town of Os'tia, 
and established salt-works in its vicinity; fortified the Janiculan Hill, 
opposite Rome, for a defense against the Etruscans; and constructed the 
Mamertine, the first Roman prison. 



18. Lucius Tarquin'ius Priscus was of Greek origin, though he took 
his name from the Etruscan town Tarquinii, where he was born. The 
characteristics of his race were shown in the magnificent works with 
which he embellished Rome. He drained the lower parts of the city by 
a great system of sewers, and restrained the overflow of the Tiber by a 
wall of massive masonry, at the place where the Cloa / ca Maxima en¬ 
tered the river. In the valley thus redeemed from inundation he built 
the Forum, with its surrounding rows of porticos and shops; and con¬ 
structed the Circus Maximus for the celebration of the Great Games, 
which had been founded by Romulus, and resembled in most of their 
features the athletic contests of the Greeks. 














HISTORY OF ROME. 


253 


As a native of Etruria, Tarquin vowed the erection, upon the Capito- 
line, of a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the three deities who 
were worshiped together in every Etruscan city, and for this purpose he 
cleared away from that mountain all the holy places of the Sabine gods. 
The temple was built by his son. The wars of Tarquin against the 
Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans were usually victorious, and added largely 
to the population of Rome. From the noblest of the conquered peoples 
he formed three new half-tribes of fifty “ houses ” each, which he joined 
to the three old tribes of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, while he increased 
the number of Vestal Virgins from four to six, that each race might be 
equally represented. Tarquin was murdered by hired agents of the sons 
of Ancus Martius, who hoped thus to secure for themselves the throne 
of their father. But the Roman monarchy was strictly elective, not 
hereditary; their crime failed of its purpose, and Servius Tul'lius, an 
Etruscan general, and son-in-law of the murdered king, obtained the 
crown. 

19. He made radical changes in the constitution, by giving to every 
free Roman the right of suffrage, though all offices in the government 
were still held by the nobles. The Greek cities of southern Italy were,, 
at the same time, changing from aristocratic to popular forms of gov¬ 
ernment, and there are many signs of Greek influence in Latium and 
Rome. The new popular assembly, Comitia Centuria'ta , was so called 
from the “ centuries ” in which the entire citizen-soldiery was enrolled. 
Wealth now acquired in Rome something of the power which had hith¬ 
erto been reserved for rank. Every man who held property was bound 
to serve in the armies, and his military position was accurately graded 
by the amount of his possessions. Highest of all were the Eq'uites , or 
horsemen. These were divided into eighteen centuries, of which the first 
six — two for each original tribe — were wholly patrician, while the re¬ 
maining twelve were wealthy and powerful plebeians. 

The mass of the people enrolled for service on foot was divided into 
five classes. Those who were able to equip themselves in complete 
brazen armor fought in the front rank of the phalanx. Of this class 
there were eighty centuries: forty of younger men, from seventeen to forty- 
five years of age, who were the choicest of Roman infantry in the field; 
and forty of their elders, from forty-six to sixty, who were usually re¬ 
tained for the defense of the city. The second class were placed behind 
the first; they wore no coat of mail, and their shields were of wood 
instead of brass. The third class wore no greaves, and the fourth carried 
no shields. These three classes consisted of only twenty centuries each. 
The fifth and lowest military class did not serve in the phalanx, but 
formed the light-armed infantry, and provided themselves only with darts 
and slings. Below all the classes were a few centuries of the poorest 


254 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


people, who were not required to equip themselves for war. I hey were 
sometimes armed, at the public expense, on occasions of great loss or 
danger to the state; or they followed the army as supernumeraries, and 
were ready to take the weapons and places of those who fell. 

20. Beside the patrician tribes of Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres, Servius 
made four tribes in the city and twenty-six in the country, consisting 
of land-owners without respect to rank. The meeting-place for the whole 
thirty was the Forum at Rome, while the centuries met without the city 
on the Field of Mars. The people assembled in the Forum had all the 
powers of self-government. They elected magistrates and levied taxes for 
the support of the state, duties which hitherto had belonged to the 
Comitia Curiata. Of the public lands on the Etruscan side of the Tiber, 
gained in his early wars, Servius assigned a certain portion to the plebe¬ 
ians, in full ownership. The patricians had leased these lands from the 
state for the pasturage of their flocks, and they were much exasperated 
by the new allotment. 

21. Servius extended the bounds of the city far beyond the Roma 
QuadraTa of the Palatine. The Esquiline, Caelian, and Aventine hills 
had already been occupied by surburban settlements, while the Capito- 
line, Quirinal, and Vim'inal were held by the Sabine tribes. These 
Seven Hills,* with a large space between and around them, were in¬ 
closed by Servius in a new wall, which lasted more than eight hundred 
years, until the time of the emperor Aurelian. Servius reigned forty- 
four years, B. C. 578-534. Desirous above all things for the continuance 
of his reformed institutions, he had determined to abdicate the throne, 
after causing the people, by a free and universal vote, to elect two mag¬ 
istrates who should rule but one year. Before the end of their term 
they were to provide, in like manner, for the peaceful choice of their 
successors; and thus Rome would have passed, by a bloodless revolution, 
to a popular government. The nobles, however, revolted against this 
infringement of their exclusive rights. Led by Tarquin, son of the first 
monarch of that name, and husband of the wicked Tullia, daughter of 
Servius, they murdered the beneficent king and placed their leader on 
the throne. 

22. Tarquin, called “ the Proud,” set aside all the popular laws of 
Servius, and restored the privileges of the “ houses ”; but as soon as he felt 
secure in his power, he oppressed nobles and people alike. He compelled 
the poorer classes to toil upon the public works which his father had 


* The name of the City of the Seven Mountains had been given to Rome when 
within much narrower limits. The Septimontium included only the Palatine, 
Esquiline, and Cselian, which were divided into smaller peaks or eminences, 
seven in all. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


255 


begun, and upon others which he himself originated. Such were the 
permanent stone seats of the Circus Maximus, a new system of sewers, 
and the great Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. By wars or 
intrigues, Tarquin made himself supreme throughout Latium. But his 
insolence disgusted the patricians; he took away the property or lives 
of citizens without consulting the Senate, while he imposed upon them 
civil and military burdens beyond what the law permitted. The vile 
misconduct of his son Sextus led at last to a revolt, in which kingly 
government was overthrown. The Tarquins and all their clan were 
banished. The very name of king was thenceforth held in especial 
abhorrence at Rome. Only in one case was it tolerated. A “ king for 
offering sacrifices ” was appointed, that the gods might not miss their 
usual mediator with men; but this sacerdotal king was forbidden to hold 
any civil office. 


EECAPITULATIOIT. 

Early history of Rome is largely fabulous. Three races in Italy, of whom the 
Etruscans, before the rise of Rome, were most powerful. Their cities, art, and 
religion. Rome was founded by Latins, but embraced a mixed population of 
Sabines, Etruscans, and others, which gave rise to the three tribes. Three 
hundred noble “houses” constituted the Senate and Comitia Curiata. Clientage. 
Formation of a commonalty under Ancus Martius. Buildings of Tarquin ins 
Priscus. Free constitution of Servius Tullius. Division of the people into centu¬ 
ries, both as soldiers and citizens. Thirty tribes assemble in the Forum. In¬ 
closure of the Seven Hills by the Tullian Wall. Tyranny of Tarquin the Proud. 
Royalty abolished at Rome. Supposed Chronology of the Kings: Romulus, B. C. 
753-716; Numa, 716-673; Tullius Hostilius, 673-641 ; Ancus Martius, 641-616; L. Tar- 
quinius Priscus, 616-578; Servius Tullius, 578-534; Tarquinius Superbus, 534-510. 


Religion of Rome. 

23. Before passing to the history of the Republic, we glance at the 
religion of Rome. For the first 170 years from the foundation of the 
■city, the Romans had no images of their gods. Idolatry has probably 
been, in every nation, a later corruption of an earlier and more spiritual 
worship. Roman religion was far less beautiful and varied in its con¬ 
ceptions than that of the Greeks. * It afforded but little inspiration to 
poetry or art, but it kept alive the homely household virtues, and regu- 


* At a later period, when the Romans had become familiar with the literature 
of the Greeks, an attempt was made to unite the mythologies of the two nations. 
Some deities, like Apollo, were directly borrowed from the Greeks; in other 
cases, some resemblance of office or character caused the Greek and the Roman 
divinities to be considered the same. Thus Jupiter was identified with Zeus; 
Minerva, the thinking goddess —the Etruscan Menerfa — with Athena, etc. By 
order of the Delphic oracle or of the Sibylline Books, living serpents, sacred to 
iEsculapius, were brought from Epidaurus to Rome, to avert a pestilence, B. C. 293. 



256 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


lated the transactions of the farm, the forum, and the shop, by princi¬ 
ples drawn from a higher range of being. 

The chief gods of the Romans were Jupiter and Mars. The former 
was supreme; but the latter was, throughout the early history of this 
warlike people, the central object of worship. March, the first month 
of their year, was consecrated to him, and, in almost all Ruropean lan¬ 
guages, still bears his name. The great war festival occupied a large 
portion of the month. During its first few days the twelve Salii, or 
leapers, priests of Mars, who were chosen from the noblest families, 
passed through the streets singing, dancing, and beating their rods upon 
their brazen shields. Quirinus, under whose name Romulus was wor¬ 
shiped, was only a duplicate Mars, arising from the union of the two 
mythologies of the Romans and Sabines. He had, also, his twelve 
leapers, and was honored, in February, with similar ceremonies. 

24. The celebrations of the several periods of the farmer’s year were 
next in order to the war festival. The month of April w as marke l^y^ 
days of sacrifice to the nourishing earth; to Ceres, the goddess of growth ; 
to the patroness of flocks; and to Jupiter, the protector of vines; while 
a deprecatory offering was made to Rust, the enemy of crops. In May 
the Arval Brothers, a company of twelve priests, held their three days’ 
festival in honor of Dea Dia, invoking her blessing in maintaining the 
fertility of the earth, and granting prosperity to the whole territory of 
Rome. August had its harvest festivals; October, its wine celebration 
in honor of Jupiter; December, its two thanksgivings for the treasures 
of the granary, its Saturnalia or seed-sowing on the 17th, and its cele¬ 
bration of the shortest day, which brought back the new sun. Sailors 
had their festivals in honor, respectively, of the gods of the river, the 
harbor, and the sea. The ceremonial year was closed with the singular 
Lu'perca'lia, or wolf festival, in which a certain order of priests, girdled 
with goat-skins, leaped about like wolves, or ran through the city scourg¬ 
ing the spectators with knotted thongs; and by the Ter / mina / lia, or 
boundary-stone festival in honor of Ter'minus, the god of landmarks. 

Janus, the double-faced god of beginnings, was a peculiarly Roman 
divinity. To him all gates and doors were sacred, as well as the morn¬ 
ing, the opening of all solemnities, and the month (January) in which 
the labors of the husbandman began anew in southern Italy. Sacrifices 
were offered to him on twelve altars, and prayers at the beginning of 
every day. New-year’s day was especially sacred to him, and was 
supposed to impart its character to the whole year. People were 
careful, therefore, to have their thoughts, words, and acts on that day 
pure, beneficent, and just. They greeted each other with gifts and good 
wishes, and performed some part of whatever work they had planned 
for the year; while they were much dispirited if any trifling accident 



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HISTORY OF ROME. 


257 


occurred. A covered passage between the Palatine and Quirinal hills, 
i. e., between the original Roman and Sabine cities, was known by the 
name of Janus. Armies going out or returning passed through it, and 
hence it was always open in time of war and closed in peace. The 
same ceremony was continued after the passage had ceased to be used, 
the triumphal gate having been constructed in the walls of Servius. 

25. Vulcan, the god of fire and the forge, was honored by two festi¬ 
vals, the consecration of trumpets in May, and the Vol / cana / lia in 
August. Though of inferior rank to the divinities already mentioned, 
yet dearest of all to the Romans, were the gods of the hearth, the 
household, and store-room, and of the forest and field. Every house 
was a temple, and every meal a sacrifice to Vesta, the goddess of the 
hearth. Her temple was the hearth-stone of the city. There six chosen 
maidens, daughters of the most illustrious families, guarded the sacred 
fire, which was the symbol of the goddess, by night and day. Every 
house had over its main entrance a little chapel of the La'res, where 
the father of the family performed his devotions immediately on return¬ 
ing from any journey. The Lares were supposed to be the spirits of 
good men, especially the deceased ancestors of the family. Public Lares 
were the protecting spirits of the city; they were worshiped in a temple 
and numerous chapels, the latter being placed at the crossings of streets. 
There were also rural Lares, and Lares Via'les, who were worshiped by 
travelers. 

26. Like all people in any degree affected by Greek culture, the 
Romans consulted the Delphic oracle. After the capture of Ve'ii (see 
| 57), they presented that shrine with a tenth of the spoils. Rome 
itself possessed only one oracle, that of Faunus (the favoring god), on 
the Aventine Hill. Several oracles of Fortune, Faunus, and Mars existed 
in Latium, but in none of them were audible responses given, by the 
mouth of inspired persons, as at Delphi. At Albu'nea, near Tibur, 
Faunus was consulted by the sacrifice of a sheep, The skin of the 
animal was spread upon the ground; the person seeking direction slept 
upon it, and believed that he learned the will of the god by visions and 
dreams. The Romans frequently resorted to the Greek oracles in southern 
Italy; and the most acceptable gift which the inhabitants of Magna 
Grsecia could offer to their friends in Rome, was a palm-leaf inscribed 
with some utterance of the Cumaean sibyl, a priestess of Apollo at 
Cumae,-near Naples. 

27. The Sibylline Rooks were believed to have been purchased by one 
of the Tarquins from a mysterious woman, who appeared at Rome offer¬ 
ing nine volumes at an exorbitant price. The king refusing to purchase, 
the sibyl went away and destroyed three of the books; then brought 
back the remaining six, for which she asked the same amount of money. 

A. H.—17. 


258 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


The king again sent her away; she destroyed three more books, and de¬ 
manded the whole price for the remaining three. The curiosity of Tarquin 
was aroused, and he bought the books, which were found to contain impor¬ 
tant revelations concerning the fate of Rome. They were kept in a stone 
chest under the temple of Jupiter Cap'itoli'nus. One of the four sacred 
colleges was charged with the care of them, and they were only consulted, 
by order of the Senate, on occasions of great public calamity. 

28. The Romans probably learned from the Etruscans their various 
methods of divination — the interpretation of signs in the heavens, of 
thunder and lightning, of the flight or voice of birds, of the appearance 
of sacrifices, and of dreams. The legends ascribed to Tarquinius Priscus 
the introduction of Etruscan divinities and modes of worship into Rome. 
At a later time, the Senate provided by special decree for the cultivation 
of “ Etruscan discipline ” by young men of the highest birth, lest u 
science so important to the commonwealth should be corrupted by falling 
into the hands of low and mercenary persons. 

The Augurs constituted the second of the sacred colleges; their number 
was gradually increased from three to sixteen; they were distinguished 
by a sacred dress and a curved staff, and were held in the highest honor. 
No public act of any kind could be performed without “ taking the au¬ 
guries ” — no election held, no law passed, no war declared; for, by 
theory, the gods were the rulers of the state, and the magistrates merely 
their deputies. If, in the midst of the comitia, an augur, however 
falsely, declared that it thundered, the Assembly broke up at once. It 
must be admitted that the augurs often used their great power unfairly 
in the political strife between patricians and plebeians. The latter, as 
originally foreigners (see \ 17), were held to have no share in the gods 
of Rome, who thus became the exclusive patrons of the privileged class. 
When, by a change in the constitution, plebeians were at length elected 
to high offices, the augurs in several cases declared the election null, oil 
the pretext that the auspices had been irregular; and as no one could 
appeal from their decision, their veto was absolute. 

29. The College of Pontiffs was the most illustrious of the religious 
institutions attributed to the good king Numa. The pontiffs superin¬ 
tended all public worship according to their sacred books, and were re¬ 
quired to give instruction to all who asked it, concerning the ceremonies 
with which the gods might be approached. Whenever sacred officers 
were to be appointed, or wills read, they convoked the Assembly. Cer¬ 
tain cases of sacrilegious crime could only be judged by them ; and in 
very early times, like the Hebrew scribes, they were the sole possessors 
of both civil and religious law. The highest magistrate, equally with 
private persons, submitted to their decrees, provided three members of 
the college agreed in the decision. They alone knew what days and 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


259 


hours might be used for the transaction of public business. The calen¬ 
dar was in their keeping, and—since these august and reverend digni¬ 
taries were only men — it is well known that they sometimes used their 
power to lengthen the year’s office of a favorite consul, or to shorten 
that of one whom they disapproved. The title of Poi/tifex Maximus, 
nr Supreme Pontiff, was adopted by the Roman emperors, and passed 
from them to the popes or bishops of modern Rome. 

30. The fourth of the sacred colleges consisted of the Fetia'les , or 
heralds, who were the guardians of the public faith in all dealings with 
foreign nations. If war was to be declared, it was the duty of a herald 
to enter the enemy’s country, and four times — once on either side of 
the Roman boundary, then to the first citizen whom he chanced to meet, 
and, finally, to the magistrates at the seat of government — to set forth 
the causes of complaint, and with great solemnity to call on Jupiter to 
give victory to those whose cause was just. 

The priests of particular gods were called Flamens, or kindlers, because 
one of their principal duties was the offering of sacrifices by fire. Chief 
of them all was the Flamen Dialis, or priest of Jupiter; and next to 
him were the priests of Mars and Quirinus. Though the purity and 
dignity of the priestly life were guarded by many curious laws, the 
priest was not forbidden to hold civil offices. He was not allowed, how¬ 
ever, to mount a horse, to look upon an army outside the walls, or, in 
early times, to leave the city for even a single night. 

31. After the good king Servius Tullius had completed his census, he 
performed a solemn purification of the city and people. During the 
Republic, the same ceremony was repeated after every general registra¬ 
tion, which took place once in five years. Sacrifices of a pig, a sheep, 
and an ox were offered; water was sprinkled from olive-branches, and 
certain substances were burned, whose smoke was supposed to have a 
cleansing effect. In like manner, farmers purified their fields, and shep¬ 
herds their flocks. An army or a fleet always underwent lustration 
before setting out on any enterprise. In the case of the latter, altars 
were erected on the shore near which the ships were moored. The sac¬ 
rifices were carried three times around the fleet, in a small boat, by the 
generals and priests, while prayers were offered aloud for the success of 
the expedition. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Roman religion less imaginative and more practical than the Greek. Jupiter, 
Mars, and Quirinus its chief divinities. Yearly festivals had reference chiefly to 
Avar and husbandry. Worship of Janus. Household gods. The Romans shared 
their belief in oracles with the Greeks; their arts of divination, with the Etrus¬ 
cans. Four Sacred Colleges: Pontiffs, Augurs, Heralds, and Keepers of the Sibyl¬ 
line Books. Priests might hold civil offices. Ceremonial cleansing of the city after 
every census; of armies and fleets betoie e\erj expedition. 


260 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


II. The Roman Republic. 

32. The 480 years’ history of the Roman Republic will be best under¬ 
stood if divided into four periods: 

I. The Growth of the Constitution, B. C. 510-343. 

II. Wars for the possession of Italy, B. C. 343-264. 

III. Foreign Wars, by which Rome became the ruling power in the 
world, B. C. 264-133. 

IV. Internal Commotions and Civil Wars, B. C. 133-31. 

The leaders of the revolution which expelled the Tarquins, restored the 
laws of Servius and carried forward his plans, by causing the election 
of two chief magistrates, of whom one was probably a plebeian. The 
consuls, during their year of office, had all the power and dignity of kings. 
They were preceded in public by their guard of twelve lictors, bearing 
the fasces, or bundles of rods. Out of the city, when the consul was 
engaged in military command, an ax was bound up with the rods, in 
token of his absolute power over life and death. 

33. For 150 years the Republic was involved in a struggle for exist¬ 
ence, during which its power was much less than that of regal Rome. 
The Latins threw off their supremacy, and Lars Por'sena, the Etruscan 
king of Clu'sium, actually conquered the city, and received from the 
Senate an ivory throne, a golden crown, a scepter, and triumphal robe, 
in token of homage. In their further attempts upon Latium, the Etrus¬ 
cans were defeated, and Rome became independent, but with the loss of 
all her territories west of the Tiber. The Latins were defeated at the 
Lake Regillus, by the aid — so Roman minstrels related — of the twin 
deities, Castor and Pollux, who appeared at the head of the legions, in 
the form of two beautiful youths of more than mortal stature, mounted 
on white horses, and who were the first to break through into the 
enemy’s camp. A temple was consequently built to them in the Forum, 
and they were regarded as the especial patrons of the Roman knights. 

34. External dangers over, the patricians again made their power felt 
in the oppression of the common people. The first period of the Repub¬ 
lic was absorbed in conflicts between the two great orders in the state — 
less attractive, certainly, than the romantic stories of the kingly age, or 
the stirring incidents of the later period of conquest. But the steps by 
which a great people has gained and established its freedom can never 
be without importance, especially to the only republic which has rivaled 
Rome in grandeur, in variety of interests, or in the multitude of races 
and languages included eventually within its limits. 

35. The wealth of Rome hitherto had been chiefly derived from the 
products of the soil. The lands west of the Tiber were now lost, and all 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


261 


the rural district was open to invasion. Crops were ruined, farm build¬ 
ings destroyed, cattle driven away. At the same time, through the losses 
and necessities of the government, taxes were greatly increased; and these 
were levied, not upon the reduced value of the property, but upon the 
scale of former assessments. To meet their dues, the poor were obliged 
to borrow money, at enormous rates of interest, from the rich. The 
nobles seized the opportunity to enforce to their full extent the cruel laws 
concerning debt, and the suflerings of the insolvent grew too grievous to 
be borne. Many sold themselves as slaves to discharge their obligations. 
Those who refused thus to sign away their own and their children’s liberty 
were often imprisoned, loaded with chains, and starved or tortured by the 
cruelty of their creditors. The patrician castles, which commanded the 
hills of Rome, contained gloomy dungeons, which were the scenes of un¬ 
told atrocities toward such as had the misfortune to incur the wrath of 
their owners. 

36. Fifteen years after the expulsion of the kings, the plebeians, wearied 
out with a government which existed only for the rich, and imposed all 
its burdens on the poor, withdrew in a body to a hill beyond the Anio, 
and declared their intention of founding a new city, where they might 
govern themselves by more just and equal laws, B. C. 494. The patricians 
now perceived that they had gone too far. However much they hated the 
people, they had no idea of losing their services. They yielded, therefore, 
and received back the seceded plebeians on their own conditions. These 
were: (1.) Cancellation of claims against insolvent debtors; (2.) Liberation 
of all such who had been imprisoned or enslaved; (3.) Annual election of 
two Tribunes , whose duty it should be to defend the interests of the com¬ 
mons. The number of these officers was soon raised to five, and eventually 
to ten. Two plebeian JE'diles were at the same time appointed, and charged 
with the superintendence of streets, buildings, markets, and public lands; of 
the public games and festivals, and of the general order of the city. They 
were judges in cases of small importance, like those of modern police 
courts; and they were eventually intrusted with the keeping of the decrees 
of the Senate, which had sometimes been tampered with by the patrician 
magistrates. 

37 . The scene of this first decisive battle of the people for their rights, 
was consecrated to Jupiter, and known in later years as the Sacred Mount 
(Mons Sacer ). The Roman commons had thenceforth an important part 
in public affairs. To prevent suffering in future, Spurius Cassius, consul 
in the year following the secession, proposed a division among the plebeians 
of a certain part of the public lands, while the tithe of produce levied by 
the state upon the lands leased by the patricians, should be strictly col¬ 
lected and applied to the payment of the common people when they served 
as soldiers. Hitherto the troops had received no pay, while their burden 


262 


ANCIENT 111 ST OR Y. 


of war expenses was great. The other consul opposed the law, and charged 
Cassius with seeking popularity that he might make himself a king. The 
law —the first of a long series of “Agrarian” enactments — was passed; 
but when the year of his consulship had expired, Cassius was brought to 
trial by his enemies, and condemned as a traitor. He was scourged and 
beheaded, and his house was razed to the ground, B. C. 485. 

38. Having destroyed the leader, the patricians went on to rob the 
people of all the advantage of the law. They insisted on electing both 
consuls themselves, only requiring their confirmation by the popular as¬ 
semblies; and with or without this confirmation, their candidates held 
supreme power, and refused to divide the public lands. The only resource 
of the commons was to withhold themselves from military service, and the 
tribunes now made their power felt by protecting them in refusing to enlist. 
The consuls defeated this measure by holding their recruiting stations out¬ 
side of the city, while the jurisdiction of the tribunes was wholly within 
the walls. Though a man might keep himself safe within the protection 
of the tribunes, yet his lands were laid waste, his buildings burnt, and his 
cattle confiscated by order of the government. One last expedient re¬ 
mained. Though compelled to enlist, the soldiers could not be made to 
gain a battle; and considering the consul who led them, and the class to 
which he belonged, worse enemies than those whom they met in the field, 
they allowed themselves to be defeated by the Veientians. 

30. The noble house of the Fa'bii, as champions of the nobility, had 
been for six successive years in possession of the consulship. They now 
saw the danger to Rome of longer opposition to the will of the people; 
and when Kseso Fabius, in the year 479 B. C., came into power, he in¬ 
sisted upon the execution of the Cassian law. The patricians refused 
with scorn, and the Fabii resolved to quit Rome. With their hundreds 
of clients, their families, and a few burghers who were attached to them 
by friendship and sympathy, they established a colony in Etruria, on the 
little river Crem'era, a few miles from the city. They promised to be no 
less loyal and valiant defenders of Roman interests, and to maintain with 
their own resources this advanced post, in the war then in progress against 
Veii. Two years from their migration, the settlement was surprised by the 
Veientians, and every man was put to death, B. C. 477. 

40. The consuls still refused to comply with the Agrarian law, and at 
the expiration of their term were impeached by GeniFcius, one of the 
tribunes of the people. On the morning of the day appointed for the trial, 
Genucius was found murdered in his bed, B. C. 473. This treacherous act 
paralyzed the people for the moment, and the consuls proceeded with the 
enlistment of soldiers. Vo'lero PublFlius, a strong and active commoner, 
refused to be enrolled; and in the tumult which ensued, the consuls with 
all their retinue were driven from the Forum. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


263 


The next year Volero was chosen tribune, and brought forward a law 
that the tribunes should thenceforth be elected by the commons alone in 
their tribes, instead of by the entire people in the centuries. This was 
designed to avoid the overwhelming vote of the clients of the great houses, 
who were obliged to obey the decrees of their patrons, and who often con¬ 
trolled the action of the general assembly. For a whole year the patricians 
contrived, by various delays, to prevent the passage of the bill. Ap / pius 
Claudius, one of the consuls, stationed himself with an armed force in the 
Forum to oppose it; and it was not until the plebeians, resorting in their 
turn to force, had seized the Capitol, and held it for some time under mil¬ 
itary guard, that the Publilian law was passed. This “second Great 
Charter of Roman liberties” gave the tribes not only the power of electing 
tribunes and sediles, but of first discussing all questions which concerned 
the entire nation. It was a long step toward the gaining of equal rights 
by the commons, B. C. 471. 

41. In the meanwhile, the Romans were carrying on wars with the 
iEqui and Volsci, two Oscan nations which had taken advantage of the 
changes in the Latin League, to extend their power to the cities on the 
Alban Mount and over the southern plain of Latium. Their forays ex¬ 
tended to the very gates of Rome, driving the country people to take 
refuge, with their cattle, within the walls, where a plague then raging 
added the horrors of pestilence to those of war. It is probable that the 
civil conflicts in Rome had caused the exile of many citizens; and these, 
in most instances, joined the hostile nations. Rome was the champion 
of oligarchy among the cities of Italy, as Sparta was among those of Greece. 
The spirit of party was often stronger than patriotism ; the sympathy be¬ 
tween Roman and foreign aristocrats was greater than between patrician 
and plebeian at home; and thus an exiled noble was willing to become 
the destroyer of his country. 

42. The story of Coriola'nus may be partly fictitious, but it truly illus¬ 
trates the condition of the Republic at that period. Caius Marcius, a de¬ 
scendant of the fourth king of Rome, was the pride of the patricians for 
his warlike virtues, and had won his surname Coriolanus by capturing the 
Volscian town of CorFoli by his individual gallantry. But he was bitterly 
opposed to the common people, and when he was about to be tried before 
the comitia for having opposed a distribution of corn, he fled and took 
refuge among the Volscians, whom he had formerly conquered. 1 he king 
warmly welcomed him, and seized the first opportunity to stir up a new 
war with the Romans, that lie might turn against them the arms of their 
best leader. When the Volscian army approached Rome, the Senate sent 
deputies to demand peace, but Caius refused all terms except such as were 
impossible for the Republic to grant. The priests and augurs next went 
to plead with him, but without effect. 


264 


ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 


At last the noble ladies of Rome, headed by Volum / nia, the mother of 
Caius, and his wife, VergiFia, with her young children, went out in a sad 
and solemn procession to plead for their sacred city. Coriolanus honored, 
above all, the mother to whose wise and faithful care he owed his greatness. 
He sprang to meet her with fitting reverence, but before she would recen e 
his greeting, Volumnia exclaimed: ‘‘Let me know whether I stand, in thy 
camp, thy prisoner or thy mother; whether I am speaking to an enemy or 
to my son! ” Her reproaches silenced Caius; the entreaties of his wife 
♦and children, and the tears of the noble ladies, moved him from his pur¬ 
pose. He exclaimed, “Mother, thine is the victory; thou hast saved Rome, 
but thou hast lost thy son! ” He led away the Volscian army. Some say 
he fell a victim to their revenge; but others, that he lived on among them 
to extreme old age, and lamented, in the desolateness of his years of in¬ 
firmity, the factious pride that had exiled him from wife, children, and 
native land. 

43. In the meantime, Rome suffered another visitation of pestilence, in 
which thousands of people died daily in the streets. The JEquians and 
Yolscians ravaged the country up to the walls of Rome; and in addition to 
their other miseries, the crowded multitude were threatened with starvation. 
Their civil grievances were not to be redressed by anything less than a 
thorough and radical reform. In the year 462 B. C., the tribune TerentF- 
lius Harsa proposed the appointment of a board of ten commissioners, 
half patrician and half plebeian, to revise the constitution, define the 
duties of consuls and tribunes, and frame a code of laws from the mass of 
decisions and precedents. This movement was the occasion for ten years 
of violent contention, during which Rome was several times near falling 
into the hands of the Yolscians, and was once actually occupied by a band 
of exiles and slaves under a Sabine leader, Herdo'nius, who seized the 
Capitol and demanded the restoration of all banished citizens to their 
rights in Rome. 

44. Chief of the exiles was Kseso Quinc'tius, son of the great Cincin- 
na'tus, who had been expelled for raising riots in the Forum, to prevent 
any action of the people upon the Terentilian law. The invading party 
was defeated, and every man slain. The father of Kseso was then consul. 
In revenge for the fate of his son, he declared that the law should never 
pass while he was in office; and that he would immediately lead the entire 
citizen-soldiery out to war, thus preventing a meeting of the tribes. Nay 
more, the augurs were to accompany him, and so consecrate the ground of 
the encampment, that a lawful assembly could be held under the absolute 
power of the consuls, and repeal all the laws which had ever been enacted 
at Rome under the authority of the tribunes. At the close of his term, 
Cincinnatus declared that he would appoint a dictator, whose authority 
would supersede that of all other officers, patrician or plebeian. All these 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


265 


things could be done under the strict forms of the Roman constitution; 
but the Senate and the wiser patricians saw that the patience of the com¬ 
mons might be taxed too far, and persuaded Cincinnatus to forego so 
extreme an exercise of his power. 

45. War with the iEquians went on, and treaties were only made to be 
broken. In the year 458 B. C., the entire Roman army was entrapped in 
a pass of the Alban Hills, surrounded by the enemy, and in imminent 
danger of destruction. In this crisis, Cincinnatus, who had retired from 
the consulship to resume his favorite toil of farming, was called to be 
dictator, with absolute power. The messengers of the Senate found him at 
his plow, in his little garden-plot across the Tiber. He left the plow in the 
furrow, hastened to Rome, levied a new army in a single day, went out and 
defeated the iEquians, and returned the next evening in triumph. 

EECAPITULATIOX 

Consuls are appointed with kingly power, but for a limited time. Rome 
subject to Porsena. The Latins are defeated at the Lake Regillus. Roman 
nobles oppress their debtors, and the poor secede. Tribunes of the people and 
jediles are appointed. The first Agrarian Law is proposed by Cassius, B. C. 486. 
To avenge the tyranny of their consuls, the common soldiers refuse to fight. 
The Fabii take sides with the people, and are destroyed in their colony on the 
Cremera. The Publilian Laws give the election of officers to the people in their 
tribes, B. C. 471. War and pestilence. Ten years’ debate upon the Terentilian 
Laws, which propose a revision of the constitution, B. C. 462-452. The Capitol 
-seized by exiles and Sabines. Cincinnatus, as a noble, opposes the commons, 
but, as a general, saves Rome. 


The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

46. The passage of the Terentilian law was delayed six years, but at 
length the nobles yielded the main point, and the decemviri were chosen. 
Though wholly patrician, they were men who enjoyed the confidence of 
both orders for their proved integrity. Both consuls and tribunes were 
superseded for the time, and full powers, constituent, legislative, and 
executive, were intrusted to the Ten. The laws of the Twelve Tables, 
which were the result of their labors, became the “source of all public 
and private right” at Rome for many centuries. During the debate upon 
the bill, commissioners had already been sent to Greece, to study the laws 
and constitution of the Hellenic states. They returned with an Ionian 
sophist, Hermodo'rus of Ephesus, who aided in explaining to the law¬ 
makers whatever was obscure in the notes of the commissioners; and so 
valuable were his services, that he was honored with a statue in the 
Roman comitium. 

47. Only a few points in this celebrated work of legislation can here be 
noticed. The laws of Rome gave to a father absolute right of property in 


266 


ANCIENT HISTORY . 


his family. He might sell his son, his daughter, or even his wife. The- 
latter act, indeed, was denounced as impious by the religious law, but no 
penalty was attached to it; the curse of the chief pontiff merely marked 
the guilty person for the wrathful judgments of Heaven. If a father de¬ 
sired to make his son free, the process was more difficult than the emanci¬ 
pation of a slave. The latter, if sold to another master, could be liberated 
at once, but a son thus sold and liberated returned to the possession of his 
father. This subjection could only end with the death of the parent, though 
the son himself might then be an old man. The Twelve Tables enacted 
that, if a father had three times sold his son, he lost all further control 
over him; but a son thus emancipated was considered as severed from all 
relationship with his father, and could no longer inherit his property. 
Women were all their lives considered as minors and wards. If their 
father died, they passed under the control of their brothers; or, if they 
married, they became the absolute property of their husbands. A widow 
might become the ward of her own son. Marriages between patricians and 
plebeians were declared unlawful, and children born in such had no claim 
upon their fathers’ possessions. 

48. The ten Law-givers visited with their heaviest penalties the defama¬ 
tion of character; and so stringent w r as their definition of libel, that neither 
poets nor historians dared even name the living except in terms of praise. 
It is much more difficult, therefore, to gain a true idea of public men in 
the history of Rome than of Greece, whose historians spoke with grand 
impartiality of men and measures, and the license of whose comic poets, 
though often used with insolent injustice, yet shows us all the weak points 
of character, and reveals the man as his contemporaries really saw him. 
The Roman historians, even when writing of the past, could often draw 
their materials only from funeral orations, or from the flattering verses of 
dependent poets, laid up among the records of great families. 

49. The decemvirs, during their appointed year of office, completed ten 
tables of laws; and these, according to Roman ideas, were so just and so 
acceptable, that the assemblies willingly consented to renew the same form 
of government for another term,^especially as the work of legislation was 
not quite complete. In the new decemvirate, Appius Claudius was re¬ 
elected, and his unscrupulous character now made itself felt in the tyran¬ 
nical nature of the government. The people found that they had ten 
consuls instead of two, and the power*of the Ten was unchecked by any 
popular tribune. 

50. The domestic rights of the plebeians were rudely invaded. A fair 
maiden, Virginia, caught the eye of Appius as she went daily to school in 
the Forum, attended by her nurse. He declared that she was the slave of 
one of his clients, having been born of a slave-woman in his house, and 
sold to the wife of Virginius, who had no children of her own. The friends 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


267 


of Virginia and of the people resented this insolent falsehood with such 
indignation, that the consul’s officers were compelled to release the maiden 
under bonds to appear the next day before his judgment-seat, where her 
lineage might be proved. 

Virginius, her father, was with the army before Tus / culum. He was 
hastily summoned, and, riding all night, reached the city early in the 
morning. In the garb of a suppliant, he appeared in the Forum with his 
daughter and a great company of matrons and friends. But his plea was 
not heard. Appius judged the maiden to be, at least, considered a slave 
until her freedom could be proved, in direct violation of the law which he 
had himself enacted the year before, that every one should be regarded as 
free until proved a slave. Virginius perceived that no justice could be 
expected before such a tribunal. He only demanded one last word with 
his daughter; and having drawn her aside with her nurse into one of the 
stalls of the Forum, he seized a butcher’s knife and plunged it into her 
heart, crying aloud, “Thus only, my child, can I keep thee free!” Then 
turning to the decemvir, he exclaimed, “ On thy head be the curse of this 
innocent blood! ” No one obeyed the consul’s order to seize him. With 
the bloody knife in his hand, he rushed through the crowd, mounted his 
horse at the gate of the city, and rode to the camp. 

51. The army of plebeians arose at his call and marched upon Rome. 
They entered and passed through the streets to the Aventine, calling upon 
the people, as they went, to elect ten tribunes and defend their rights. 
The other army, near Fide'nae, was aroused in the same manner by IciF- 
ius, the betrothed lover of Virginia. The common soldiers put aside those 
of the decemvirs who were with them, chose, likewise, ten tribunes, and 
marched to the city. The twenty tribunes appointed two of their number 
to act for the rest, and then leaving the Aventine guarded by a garrison, 
they passed out of the walls followed by the army, and as many of the 
people as could remove, and established themselves again on the Sacred 
Mount beyond the Anio. 

52. The Senate, which had wavered, was now compelled to act. The 
seceders had declared that they would treat with no one but Valerius and 
Hora'tius, men whom they could trust. These were sent to hear their 
demands. The people required that the power ol the tribunes should be 
restored, a right of appeal from the decision of the magistrates to the pop¬ 
ular assembly established, and the decemvirs given up to be burnt, as nine 
friends of the commons had been, within the memory of men still living. 
This latter demand, caused only by the exasperation of the moment, was 
withdrawn upon maturer council; the others were granted, the decemvirs 
resigned, and the people returned to Rome, B. C. 449. A popular assembly 
was held, in which ten tribunes were elected, Virginius and Icilius being 
of the number. Two supreme magistrates were chosen by a free vote of 


268 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


the people, in the place of the decemvirate, and they were now first called 
consuls. Their powers were the same with those of the prsetors, or generals, 
who had ruled from the expulsion of the kings to the appointment of the 
first decemvirate, except that an appeal might be made from their sentence 
to that of the comitia. 

The first consuls under this new act were Valerius and Horatius. They 
went forth and gained so signal a victory over the Sabines, that Rome 
suffered no more incursions from that people for 150 years. Ancient 
custom and even law among the Romans honored victorious generals with 
a triumphal entry into the city on their return; but the Senate, whose duty 
it was to decree the triumph, regarding the consuls as false to the interests 
of their order, forbade any such honor to be paid them. Hereupon the 
people exerted their supreme authority, and commanded the consuls to 
“triumph” in spite of the Senate. (See $$ 109-111.) Appius Claudius 
and one of his colleagues were impeached and died in prison; the rest fled 
from Rome, and their property was confiscated. 

58. A strong reaction now set in, in favor of the patricians; and so de¬ 
termined was their opposition to the new laws, that the people seceded 
again, but this time only to the Janiculum, west of the Tiber and opposite 
Rome. At last a law was passed legalizing marriage between the two 
orders. Instead of throwing open the consulship freely to the plebeians, 
it was agreed (B. C. 444) to divide its duties and dignities among five 
•officers, of whom two, the censors, should be chosen only from the nobles, 
though by a free vote of the tribes, while the three military tribunes might 
be either patricians or plebeians. The censors were to hold office five years, 
the tribunes only one. 

For some alleged defect in the auspices (see \ 28), the first three tribunes 
were set aside, and for six years consuls were regularly appointed as before. 
In 438 B. C., tribunes were elected, and for three following years consuls 
again, showing the extreme difficulty with which the people gained their 
rights, even when conceded by law. In 433 B. C., an important law of 
iEmilius, the dictator, limited the duration of the censor’s office to eighteen 
months, though he was still appointed only once in five years, thus leaving 
the place vacant a much greater time than it was filled. 

54. The censors were invested with truly kingly splendor and extraor¬ 
dinary powers. They registered the citizens and their property, adminis¬ 
tered the revenues of the state, kept the rolls of the Senate, from which 
they erased all unworthy names, and added such as they considered fit. 
In this judgment of character they were guided solely by their own sense 
of duty. If a man was tyrannical to his wife and children, or cruel to his 
slaves, if he neglected his land, or wasted his fortune, or followed any dis¬ 
honorable calling, he was degraded from his rank, whatever that might be. 
If a senator or a .knight, he was deprived of his gold ring and purple- 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


269 


striped tunic; if a private citizen, he was expelled from the tribes and lost 
his vote. The censors were thus the guardians of morals, and their power 
extended to many matters which could hardly be reached by the general 
action of the law. The taking of every census was followed by a lustration, 
or ceremonial purifying of the people (see § 31). Hence, the five years 
which intervened between two elections of censors were called a lustrum, 
or greater year. 

55. The Romans must have watched with interest, during the years 415 
and 414 B. C., the movements of the great Athenian expedition against 
Syracuse. Had the brilliant schemes of Alcibiades been carried into effect, 
the Greeks would doubtless have become the leading power in western 
Europe; “ Greece, and not Rome, might have conquered Carthage; Greek, 
instead of Latin, might have been at this day the principal element of the 
languages of Spain, of France, and of Italy ; and the laws of Athens, rather 
than of Rome, might be the foundation of the law of the civilized world.” 

RECAPITULATION. 

Decemviri chosen to make new laws for Rome. Absolute power of the pater¬ 
familias. Laws against libel make Roman history mere eulogium. Tyranny of 
the second decemvirate. Appius Claudius unjustly claims Virginia for a slave. 
The people secede, overthrow the decemvirate, and restore consuls and tribunes. 
The new consuls defeat the Sabines, and triumph in spite of the Senate. By 
another change of constitution, censors and military tribunes are chosen, instead 
of consuls. The censors have absolute power to correct public morals. The 
Athenians fail in their Sicilian expedition, B. C. 415, 414, and leave room for the 
supremacy of Rome. 


Capture of Rome by the Gauls. 

56 . The Gauls were now beginning their terrible incursions from the 
north into the valley of the Po, thus absorbing the attention of the Etrus¬ 
cans; and the time favored a fresh attack of the Romans upon Veii, the 
nearest state across the Tiber. The war began B. C. 405, and lasted ten 
years. The necessity of keeping an armed force continually in the field, 
gave rise to the standing army, which ultimately made so essential a part 
of Roman power; and, at the same time, obliged the patricians to study 
the interests of the people. It was now agreed that the soldiers should be 
regularly paid, and money secured for this purpose by a careful collection 
of the rents for public lands. The number of military tribunes was doubled. 
Their chief, the prefect of the city, was a patrician, and chosen by that 
order, but the remaining five were elected from either or both classes, by 
a free vote of the popular assembly. 

57. After ten years’ warfare with varying success, Veii was taken (B. C. 
396) by the dictator Camillus. It is said that on the very day of its sur¬ 
render, Melpum, the Etruscan stronghold in the north, fell before the 


270 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Gauls. The loss of these two frontier fortresses began the rapid decline 
of Etrurian power. The joy of the Homans was commemorated by the 
whimsical custom, long continued, of concluding every festal game with a 
mock auction called the “Sale of Veientes.” Cape'na, Fale'rii, Nep'ete, 
and Sunium were likewise conquered, and with their lands became pos¬ 
sessions of Rome. Within half a century, the Etruscans lost to the Gauls 
all their possessions in Campania and north of the Apennines, and to the 
Romans, all between the Cimin'ian forests and the Tiber. The nation had 
already lost its force through unbounded excess in luxury. The nobles 
were enormously rich, while the people were poor and enslaved. 

58. The war of the Romans against Volsii/ii was equally successful ; 
but, by a sudden and terrible reverse, Rome was now doomed to suffer the 
fate which she too often inflicted. The Gauls, after conquering northern 
Etruria, overflowed the barrier of the Apennines and' spread over central 
Italy. They met the entire Roman force near the little river AFlia, and 
defeated it with great slaughter; then pushing on with irresistible power, 
they captured and burned the city. So overwhelming was the disaster, 
that the 16th of July, the date of the battle of the Allia, was pronounced 
a “black day ” of ill-omen, on which no business could be safely transacted 
and no sacrifices acceptably offered. 

59. The vestal virgins withdrew with the sacred fire to Caere, in Etruria; 
the mass of the people, with the fugitives from the conquered army, had 
taken refuge in Veii and other Etruscan towns; but the noblest of the 
patricians resolved to hold the Capitol. Those who were too old to fight, 
hoped to serve their country equally well by an heroic death. They re¬ 
peated, after the pontifex maximus, a solemn imprecation, * devoting 
themselves and the army of the Gauls to death for the deliverance of 
Rome. Then, arrayed in their most magnificent apparel, holding their 
ivory scepters, and seated each upon his ivory throne at the door of his 
own house, they sat motionless while the tumult of plunder and pillage 
was going on around. The barbarians were struck with admiration of 
these venerable figures, and one of them began reverently to stroke the 
long white beard of Papir'ius. Enraged by this profaning touch, the old 
senator struck him with his ivory scepter. It was the signal for slaughter. 
The Gauls, recovering from their momentary awe, massacred the noble old 
men without delay. 

60 . The siege of the Capitol continued six or eight months. At one 
time it was nearly taken, by the enemy scaling the steep cliff by night 
The garrison were asleep, but some geese sacred to Juno gave a timely 
alarm, and the citadel was saved. Marcus Manlius, who was the first to 
awaken, succeeded in throwing several of the first assailants down the cliff, 


* For the probable form of this imprecation, see note, p. 276. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


271 


and thus maintained the fortress until his comrades could come to his aid. 
At length, though the garrison were nearly exhausted by hunger, the 
Gauls were equally ready to make terms, for they had heard that the 
Venetians were invading their northern possessions. A thousand pounds 
of gold were paid for the ransom of the city, and the barbarians retired. 
They were followed by Camillus, the conqueror of Veii and Falerii, who 
was now again dictator, and who, by cutting off straggling parties of the 
enemy, regained some portion of the rich booty which they were carrying 
away; but it is probably not true that he gained any important success 
over them, as was formerly believed. 

61 . A period of great distress followed the retreat of the Gauls. The 
farms, upon which the livelihood of so many people depended, had been 
laid waste; their fruit-trees, buildings, implements, stock and stores, even 
to the seed-corn needed for next year’s sowing, had been burnt. Rome 
was a mass of rubbish, in which even the direction of the former streets 
could no longer be discerned. The government furnished roofing materials, 
and allowed wood and stone to be taken from the public forests and quar¬ 
ries, on condition that every person so aided would give security to com¬ 
plete his building within the year. But these pledges were often forfeited ; 
and to meet the expense of rebuilding, as well as to pay the extraordinary 
taxes for restoring the fortress and the temples, money had to be bor¬ 
rowed, and the poor were again at the mercy of the rich. Innocent 
debtors were dragged from their homes, to toil as slaves in the shops or 
fields of their creditors. 

Many chose to remain in the Etruscan towns where they had taken 
refuge, and even to make of Veii a new Rome for the plebeians, where 
they might live free from the overbearing rule of the patricians, and be 
themselves a privileged class. Though this wholesale secession was pre¬ 
vented, yet the numbers in Rome were so greatly diminished, that a 
mass of the conquered Etruscans were brought in to fill the vacant 
places. These were provided with Roman lands, were organized into 
four new tribes, and admitted to full civil rights. The “new people” 
formed more than a sixth part of the whole population of the recon¬ 
structed city. 

62 . No one could see without pity the distress of the people; but 
Marcus Manlius, the same whose alertness and presence of mind had 
saved the Capitol, had also reasons of his own for trying to relieve them. 
He was jealous of Camillus, and thought that his own services had not 
been duly rewarded. He sold at auction the best portion of his lands, 
and applied the proceeds to paying the debts of needy persons, thus 
delivering them from imprisonment and torture. He was rewarded by 
the unbounded gratitude of the poor; his house was continually thronged 
with partisans, to whom he spoke of the selfish cruelty of the nobles, 


272 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


in throwing the whole burden of the public calamity on others, and 
even accused them of embezzling the immense sums raised to replace 
the treasures of the temples, which had been borrowed to purchase the 
retreat of the Gauls. 

63 . For this charge Manlius was thrown into prison, and the people 
began to regard him as a martyr to their cause. On his release, he re¬ 
newed his attacks upon the government. He fortified his house on the 
Capitoline, and with his party held the whole height in defiance of the 
authorities. His treason was so evident, that even the tribunes of the 
people took part with the patricians against him, and he was brought 
to trial before the popular assembly. 

He appeared, followed by several comrades whose lives he had saved 
in battle, and by four hundred debtors whom he had rescued from the 
dungeon. He exhibited the spoils of thirty enemies slain with his own 
hand, and forty crowns or other honorary rewards received from his 
generals. He appealed to the gods, whose temples he had saved from 
pollution, and he bade the people look at the Capitol before they pro¬ 
nounced judgment. It was impossible to convict such a criminal in such 
a presence, for the very spot on the Capitol where Manlius had stood 
alone against the Gauls, was visible from the Forum. He was afterward 
condemned for treason and thrown from the Tarpeian Rock, the precip¬ 
itous side of the Capitoline Hill, looking toward the Tiber. 

64 . The power of the patricians was only confirmed by this rash and 
selfish attempt to overthrow it. For seven years the distress of the people 
went on increasing; the commons lost heart, and their eldest men refused 
any longer to accept public office. Two younger men now came forward, 
who were destined, by their firm and wise procedure, to relieve in great 
measure the miseries of their class. 

C. Licinius Stolo was of one of the oldest and wealthiest plebeian 
families, connected by many marriages with the nobles. Becoming tribune 
(B. C. 376), together with his friend, L. Sextius, he proposed a new set 
of laws, designed to remove both the poverty and the political wrongs 
under which the commons were suffering. (1.) To relieve immediate 
distress, it was proposed that the enormous interest already paid upon 
debts should be reckoned as so much defrayed of the principal, and- 
should, therefore, be deducted from the sum still due. (2.) To prevent 
future poverty, the public lands, hitherto absorbed in great measure by 
the patricians, were to be thrown open equally to the plebeians, and no 
man was to be allowed to hold more than 500 jugera , * or to pasture more 
than 100 oxen and 500 sheep on the undivided portion. Further, to secure 
employment to the poor, a certain amount of free labor was required upon 


* A jugerum was very nearly five-eighths of an acre. 




HISTORY OF ROME. 


273 


every farm. (3.) Two consuls were to be elected, of whom one every 
year should be a plebeian. 

05. The strongest objection to a plebeian consulship was on religious 
grounds; for high patricians held it an impiety to place in the supreme 
magistracy one who had no right to take the auspices, and whom they 
regarded as no true Roman. To attack this prejudice in the boldest 
manner, Licinius proposed to increase the number of keepers of the 
Sibylline Books from two to ten, and to appoint five of these from the 
plebeians. These laws were not passed without many years’ violent oppo¬ 
sition. At length they were ratified by the Senate and the Comitia Curiata 
(B. C. 367); and to celebrate this happy agreement between the two orders, 
a Temple of Concord was built upon the Capitoline Hill. At the same 
time, a new office, the praetorship, was instituted and confined to the patri¬ 
cians, comprising most of the civil and judicial duties which had hitherto 
belonged to the consuls, while the latter kept their absolute military power. 
The first plebeian consul under this arrangement was L. Sextius. 

66. The restless and turbulent Gauls re-appeared in Latium, during the 
same year with the passing of the Licinian laws. They were defeated by 
the aged general Camillus, who had been six times military tribune and 
five times dictator. On their second invasion they encamped within five 
miles of the city, and struck terror, we may well believe, into the hearts 
of those who remembered the desolations of thirty years before; but, at 
length, they broke up their camp without fighting, and passed into Cam¬ 
pania. On their return through Latium they were signally defeated. In 
350 B. C., they spent the winter upon the Alban Mount, and joined the 
Greek pirates on the coast in ravaging the country, until they were dis¬ 
lodged by L. Furius Camillus, a son of the general. 

They made a treaty B. C. 346, after which they never again appeared in 
Latium. They continued to be the ruling race between the Alps and the 
northern Apennines, and along the Adriatic as far south as the Abruz zi. 
Many towns, like Milan, were held, however, by the Etruscans in a sort 
of independence, while the Gauls lived in unwalled villages. From their 
Tuscan subjects, the Gauls learned letters and the arts of civilized life, 
which spread from them, in a greater or less degree, to all the Alpine 
populations. 


recapitulation - . 

Veii taken B. C. 396, after a ten years’ siege. Defeat of the Romans on the 
\llia and capture of their city by the Gauls, B. 0. 390. IVlassacie ol the senatois. 
Manlius saves the Capitol, during a seven months’ siege. Rome in ruins. Distress 
of the poor. Treason of Manlius. The Licinian laws, passed after nine years’ 
contest, relieve debtors and divide the public lands among the common people. 
The Gauls overrun central Italy, B. C. 361-346, but at length retire north of the 

Apennines. 

A. H.—18. 


274 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Second Period, B. C. 343-264. 

67 . From the political struggles which developed the Roman constitu¬ 
tion, we turn to the series of foreign wars between Rome and her most 
powerful rival for the supremacy of southern Italy. The Samnites were a 
Sabine race, settled as conquerors in the Oscan country. Their possessions 
were mostly inland, comprising the snow-covered mountain range which 
separates the Apulian from the Campanian plains, but they extended to 
the coast between Naples and Psestum, where they included the once 
famous cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

The Samnites ranked with the Latins, as the most warlike races of Italy; 
but the conquests of the former, at the period to which we have now come, 
had been by far the more brilliant and extensive. In the decline both of 
Greek and Etruscan power in southern Italy (see Book III, \ 90), they 
had gained control of the whole lower portion of the peninsula, except a 
few Greek colonies like Tarentum and Neapolis. But Latium, under the 
leadership of Rome, had advanced surely though slowly, securing each 
advantage by the formation of Roman colonies, bound by the strongest 
ties of obedience to the mother city, while the Samnite nation had no 
settled policy and no regularly constituted head. Each new settlement, 
therefore, divided and diminished their strength. 

68. The conquerors of Cumae and Capua adopted the luxurious habits 
of the Greeks and Etruscans, whom they had supplanted, but with whom 
they continued to live on friendly terms. The Greek-loving inhabitants 
of the coast dreaded their rude countrymen of the hills, almost as much 
as did the refined Hellenes themselves, and thus a great division took 
place in the Samnite stock. The civilized and Hellenized Samnites be¬ 
sought the aid of the Romans against the predatory hordes of their own 
race, who were constantly swooping down from the Samnian hills to 
ravage their fields. The Romans consented, on condition of their own 
supremacy being acknowledged throughout Campania, and their former 
treaty with Samnium was broken. 

69 . The First Samnite War began with the march of two Roman armies 
into Campania, while the Latin allies invaded the Pelignian country on 
the north. The Roman armies were victorious, and both consuls obtained 
a triumph. A large force was left, at the request of the Campanians, to 
guard their cities during the winter. The common soldiers were still bur¬ 
dened with poverty, and the prolonged absence from their farms occasioned 
serious suffering to their families. 

In the second year of the war, mutinous plots were discovered, and a 
large body of the troops were sent home. On their way they released all 
the bondmen for debt whom they found working in the fields of their 
creditors, fortified a regular camp on the slope of the Alban Hills, and 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


275 


were joined by a large body of oppressed common people from the city. 
But when they met the army hastily raised by the patricians, and sent 
forth under Valerius the dictator — whose family had always been faithful 
friends to the people, and who was himself greatly beloved by all classes 
for his generous character, no less than his military glory — these men, 
whose revolt had been occasioned by real distress, and not by defect of 
loyalty, could not bring themselves to fight their fellow-citizens and the 
defenders of their common country. The two armies stood facing each 
other, until remorse on one side and pity on the other had overcome all 
mutual resentment; then, both pressing forward, they grasped hands or 
rushed into each others’ arms with tears and demands for pardon. The 
just requirements of the soldiers were granted by the Senate, together 
with amnesty for their irregular proceedings, and this singular rebellion 
ended in a lasting peace. 

70 . The Latins, meanwhile, had been left to carry on the Samnite war 
by themselves, and their repeated successes encouraged them to assert 
their independence of Rome. The Romans now (B. C. 341) made peace 
with the Samnites, and, two years later, turned their arms against the 
Latins, who were strengthened by alliance with their late opponents, the 
Campanians and Volscians. The two consuls with their forces moved 
into Campania, and encamped in the plain of Capua, opposite the army 
of the three allies. Strict orders were issued against skirmishing or per¬ 
sonal encounters, and disobedience was to be punished with death. 
Ignorant or heedless of the command, Titus Manlius, the consul’s son, 
accepted a challenge from a Latin warrior, killed his opponent, and 
brought the spoils in triumph to lay at his father’s feet. The consul 
turned away his face, and summoning his guards, ordered them to behead 
the young man before his tent, in the presence of all the soldiers. Roman 
discipline knew no ties of affection. Manlius, the father, was forever re¬ 
garded with horror, but Manlius, the consul and general, was strictly 
obeyed as long as he commanded the armies of Rome. 

71 . The decisive battle in the Latin war took place at the foot of Vesu¬ 
vius. The augurs, having taken the auspices as usual, declared that fate 
demanded the sacrifice of a general on one side and an army on the other. 
It was therefore made known to the Roman officers that, whichever portion 
of the army should begin to yield, the consul commanding in that quarter 
would devote himself to the gods of death and the grave, in order that the 
army which must perish might be that of the Latins. 

Manlius led the Roman right; Publius Decius, the people’s consul, the 
left. The battle was severe, and bravely fought on both sides; but, at 
length, the Latin right wing prevailed, and the Roman left began to give 
way. Decius instantly called the chief pontiff for, as a plebeian, he him- 
.self was ignorant of the ceremonies by which the gods must be addressed 


276 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


and bade him dictate the form of words in which he was to devote himself 
to death. By the direction of the pontiff, he wrapped his toga around his 
face, set his feet upon a javelin, and repeated the imprecation.* Then 
sending his guard of lictors to the other consul to announce his fate, he 
mounted his horse, plunged into the host of the enemy, and was quickly 
slain. The Latins saw and understood the act, but they still fought 
fiercely, like men who struggled against fate, feo equally matched were 
the main forces, that Manlius gained the day at last only by bringing on 
the poorer supernumeraries, whom he had armed to constitute a double 

reserve. 

72. A second battle was much more easily won, and the Latins had no 
strength to rally for a third. The Latin League was wholly broken up, 
Roman law every-where took the place of local constitutions, and some 
cities even became Roman colonies. The Latins were one in race and 
language with Rome, and their transient hostility was exchanged for a 
close and permanent alliance. The battle under Mount Vesuvius was one 
of the most important in the history of Rome, for by securing the sove¬ 
reignty of Latium, it opened the way to the conquest of the world. 

78. For the next twelve years the Romans w r ere unable to undertake 
any great foreign war. Italy was invaded by Alexander of Epirus, uncle 
of the great Macedonian conqueror, B. C. 332. His quarrel was with the 
Samnites, but if his success had been equal to his ambition, no engage¬ 
ments with the Romans would have prevented his overrunning the wdiole 
peninsula. He was defeated and slain, however, in 326 B. C., and the 
Romans immediately prepared for a renewed contest with the Samnites, 
which was to last twenty-two years, B. C. 326-304. The two chief states 
of Italy fought for sovereignty, and their allies included almost all the 
other nations in the peninsula. 

The events of the first five years were too indecisive to be worth record¬ 
ing. The advantage was generally with the Romans, but the Samnite 
power was still unbroken, and was able, in 321 B. C., to inflict one of the 
most severe and disgraceful defeats that Roman arms had ever sustained. 

* The form, which has been strictly preserved, may be of interest, as illus¬ 
trating Roman ideas: “Thou Janus, thou Jupiter, thou Mars our father, thou 
Quirinus, thou Bellona; ye Lares, ye the nine gods, ye the gods of our fathers’ 
land, ye whose power disposes both of us and of our enemies, and ye also, gods 

of the dead, I pray you, I humbly beseech you.that ye would prosper the 

people of Rome and the Quirites with all might and victory, and that ye would 

visit the enemies of the people of Rome.with terror, dismay, and death. 

And according to these words which I have now spoken, so do I now, on the 

behalf of the commonwealth of the Roman people.on behalf of the army, 

both the legions and the foreign aids.devote the legions and the foreign aids 

of our enemies, along with myself, to the gods of the dead and to the grave.” 
It was deemed an impiety to ask for victory without making a sacrifice, for 
Nemesis avenged unmingled prosperity no less than crime. 








HISTORY OF ROME. 


277 


The combined forces of Rome, led by the two consuls, were entrapped in 
a mountain-pass between Naples and Ben'even'tum, known as the “Cau- 
dine Forks.” Half the soldiers fell in the fight which ensued; the rest 
surrendered, but were generously spared by Pontius, the Samnite general, 
on condition of an honorable peace being signed by the two consuls and by 
two tribunes of the people, who were present with the troops. The soldiers 
were then made to “ pass under the yoke,” * in token of surrender, and 
were permitted to march away, without their arms, toward Rome. But 
the Senate, having got back its forces, refused to be hound by the 
agreement of the consuls. The signers of the treaty, stripped and bound, 
were given up to the vengeance of the Samnites, but Pontius refused to 
receive them. He did not choose to punish the innocent for the guilty, 
nor to justify the Roman government in taking all the advantage of the 
agreement, and refusing all the sacrifices. 

74 . The war went on six years without any very important event, 
until, in 315 B. C., the Samnites gained another great success at Lau'- 
tulse. Almost all the allies of Rome now deserted what seemed the 
losing cause. Campania revolted; the Ausonians and Volscians joined 
the Samnite alliance. But, in the following year, a still more severe 
and decisive battle gave victory to the Romans. The Samnites were 
crushed beyond all power of recovery. The war was continued, how¬ 
ever, ten years longer, chiefly by the efforts of the Etruscajis, Oscans, 
and Umbrians, to preserve the balance of power in Italy. But these 
efforts were never united, and the Romans were able to defeat them, 
one by one, until, in 304 B. C., the Samnites became subject to Rome, 
and all the other parties concluded a peace. Rome was now, without 
question, the first nation in Italy; and, considering the disputes which 
weakened the fragments of Alexander’s empire, might almost be consid¬ 
ered the greatest in the world. In intellectual culture, the Romans were 
still inferior to the conquered Samnites. Pontius, the Samnite general, 
was well versed in Greek philosophy, and in the elevation of his char¬ 
acter far surpassed the proudest Romans of his time. 

75 . Near the close of the Second Samnite War, the iEqui, who had 
been for eighty years in a state of neutrality, took up arms against 
Rome; and immediately after the treaty of B. C. 304, the consuls marched 
40,000 men into their territory. A sharp and severe struggle of fifty 
days resulted in the capture and destruction of forty-one towns. A large 
portion of the people were sold into slavery, and the rest became subjects 
of Rome. A few years later, however, they received the rights of citi¬ 
zens, were enrolled in the tribes, and served in the wars against the 
Samnites. 

* I. e., to march between two spears planted in the ground and surmounted by 
a third. Hence, our term “subjugation ” = sub jugurn ire. 



278 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


76. The latter people busily employed the six years’ interval between 
their second and third great struggle with Rome, in forming and strength¬ 
ening the “ Italian League.” Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, on the 
north, were allied with Lucanians, Apulians, most of the Greek cities, 
and the Samnites, on the south. Rome had the advantage in compact¬ 
ness, numbers, and wealth; her own or her allies’ territory extended 
across Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, and divided the 
states of her enemies. 

The war broke out in 298 B. C., but no important movement was 
made until, in 295 B. C., the combined armies of the four northern 
nations advanced toward Rome. The plan of the consuls was at once 
bold and sagacious. One army awaited the invaders, while another 
marched directly into Etruria. This movement exposed the weakness of 
the league, for the Etruscans and Umbrians, deserting their allies, drew 
off to defend their own territories. The Samnites and Gauls crossed the 
Apennines to Senti'num, where they were overtaken by the first Roman 
army. In the battle which followed, the Gallic war-chariots had nearly 
driven from the field the legions of Decius, the consul, when, remember¬ 
ing the example of his father at Vesuvius, he, likewise, devoted himself 
to the powers of death for the deliverance of Rome. The legions were 
at length triumphant; 25,000 of the enemy lay dead upon the field. 

77. The Gauls now withdrew from the league, but the Samnites con¬ 
tinued the war with unabated resolution. Twenty-eight years after his 
great victory at the Caudine Forks, Pontius again defeated a Roman 
army under Fabius Gur'ges. The Romans were so exasperated by this 
defeat where they were confident of victory, that they would have de¬ 
prived the consul of his command, had not his old father, Fabius Max¬ 
imus, offered to serve as his lieutenant. 

A great victory was now gained, in which Pontius was captured, and 
made to walk, loaded with chains, in the triumph of the consul. When 
the procession reached the ascent to the Capitol, he was led aside and 
beheaded in the Mamertine prison — he who, thirty years before, had 
spared the lives and liberty of two Roman armies, and even generously 
released the officers when given over to his vengeance! This base treat¬ 
ment of a brave foe has been called the greatest stain in the Roman 
annals. The war was ended with the complete submission of Samnium, 
and the Romans established a colony of 20,000 people at Venu'sia, to 
hold the conquered territory in awe, B. C. 290. 

78. In the same year, the consul, Curius Denta / tus, began and ended 
another war against the Sabines, who had come to the aid of their 
Samnite kinsmen. They were subdued, and their extensive country, rich 
in oil, wine, and forests of oak, fell into the possession of the Romans. 
The commons at Rome suffered greatly, nevertheless, from the burdens 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


279 


of the war. Their farms had been neglected during their absence with 
the army, and those who had the misfortune to have been taken prison¬ 
ers, had to be ransomed at a cost ruinous to small fortunes. 

Curius, the conqueror of the Sabines, proposed a new Agrarian law for 
the division ot their lands among the poor of Rome. A political contest 
ot several years ensued, during which the mass of the people seceded 
again to the Janiculum. A rumor of foreign invasion induced the Senate 
to yield and appoint Hortensius, a plebeian of ancient family, to be dic¬ 
tator. By his wise and conciliatory counsels, peace was restored. He 
convened all the people in a grove of oaks without the walls, and by 
the solemn oaths ot the whole assembly passed the Hortensian laws, 
which ended the civil strife of Rome for 150 years. Every citizen re¬ 
ceived an allotment of land, and certain invidious marks of distinction 
between patricians and plebeians were effaced, B. 0. 286. 

BECAPITULATIOIT. 

The Hellenized Samnites ask the aid of Rome against their highland country¬ 
men. The First Samnite War, B. C. 343-341, opens with success to the Romans. 
Sedition of troops in Campania. The Latins revolt against Rome and join the 
Campanians and Volscians. The Romans make peace and alliance with the 
Samnites for the Latin War, B. C. 340-338. In the battle of Vesuvius, Decius, the 
consul, devotes himself to death, and the Romans are victorious. The Latin 
League suppressed, and the supremacy of Rome established. An invasion of 
Italy by Alexander of Epirus, is followed by the Second Samnite War, B. C. 
326-304. The Romans defeated at the Caudine Forks, B. C. 321, but at last com¬ 
pletely victorious. They conquer the iEqui, B. C. 304. Third Samnite War, and 
Italian League against Rome, B. C. 298-290. Great victory at Sentinum over 
Gauls, Samnites, Etruscans, and Umbrians. Capture of Pontius, B. C. 292, and 
end of the Samnite wars. Sabine territories conquered and divided among the 
people, by Hortensian laws. 


War with Pyrrhus. 

79. Within three years (B. C. 283), the Romans were menaced by a 
new danger, in a powerful coalition formed by the Tarentines, and in¬ 
cluding nearly all the nations of Italy. The storm gathered swiftly and 
burst from all quarters at once. In the south, the Samnites, Lucanians, 
and Bruttians were in arms; in the north, the Etruscans and Umbrians, 
with hordes of Gallic mercenaries, were pouring into the field. ArreTium 
alone stood firmly by the Roman alliance, and was besieged by an army 
of Etruscans and Gauls. The consul, MeteKlus, marching to its relief, 
was defeated with the total loss of his army. Embassadors, sent to re¬ 
monstrate with the Seno'nian Gauls for the infringement of their treaty 
with Rome, were murdered, and their bodies hewed to pieces and cast 
out without burial. This outrage, which the laws of the rudest savages 
pronounced sacrilege, provoked a speedy vengeance. DolabePla, the 


280 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


consul, marched into the Gallic territory with his army, killed every 
man who was found, carried off the women and children as slaves, and 
reduced every village to a heap ot ashes and rubbish. 

80. The Boian Gauls took up arms to avenge their brethren, and, 
joining the Etruscans, met the Roman forces in the valley of the Tiber, 
near the little lake VadTmon. They were defeated so thoroughly that 
very few escaped from the field. The consul Fabric'ius, the following 
year, defeated the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians in several great 
battles, broke up the coalition in the south, and collected an amount of 
spoils which enabled him to pay all the war expenses of the year, and, 
beside allowing a liberal share to every soldier, to leave half a million 
of dollars in the treasury. Tarentum, the prime mover of the war, had 
never drawn a sword, but had left all its burdens and losses to her 
allies. To punish this passive but mischievous policy, a Roman fleet 
was now sent to cruise around the eastern and southern coasts of Italy. 
It was defeated and sunk by the Tarentines in their own harbor. They 
then seized Thurii, expelled the Roman garrison, and, in the name of 
all the Italian Greeks, sent to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for aid. 

81. This accomplished and ambitious prince was glad of a new field 
of enterprise. He hastened into Italy with a well-appointed army of 
25,500 men, drilled and equipped in the Macedonian fashion, and sup¬ 
plied with twenty elephants. The gay and self-indulgent Tarentines, 
quite willing that another should fight their battles for them, forgot their 
promises of service and subsidies; but Pyrrhus showed them that he was 
master by stopping the sports of the circus and theaters, and the ban¬ 
quets of the clubs, and keeping the citizens under arms from morning 
to night. Even with inferior forces he was able to defeat the Roman 
legions at Heracle'a, on the Siris. Seven times the Epirotes and Greeks 
were driven from the field, and seven times regained it; but when the 
last Italian reserve was engaged, Pyrrhus brought on his elephants, till 
then unknown in Italy, and they put to flight the Roman horse. The 
rout was complete; the Romans did not stay to defend their camp, but 
fled to VeniPsia, leaving Pyrrhus master of the field. 

82. He was now joined by many allies, some of whom had even been 
subjects or friends of Rome ; but the- advantage of his victory was not 
sufficient to balance his loss in officers and men — losses the more serious 
as Greece was now overrun by the Gauls, and there was little hope of 
recruits. In these circumstances, Pyrrhus sent to Rome his embassador, 
Cin'eas, an orator of such brilliant talent, that he was said to have won 
more cities by his tongue than Pyrrhus by his sword. A large party was 
inclined to listen to his proposals of “ peace, friendship, and alliance.” 
But Appius Claudius —thirty years ago censor, now a blind old man — 
heard in his house that Rome was making peace, with a victorious enemy 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


281 


still upon Italian soil. He caused himself to be carried in a litter 
through the Forum to the Senate-house. When he arrived, all his sons 
and sons-in-law went out to meet him and lead him to his ancient place. 
All the Senate listened in breathless silence as the old man rose to speak, 
protesting against the dishonor of his country. When he ceased, it was 
voted that no peace should be made while any foreign foe was in Italy, 
and that the orator who had so nearly persuaded them should leave the 
city that very day. 

83. The war went on between the consummate genius of Pyrrhus and 
the unconquerable will of the Roman people. They were fighting for 
existence, while Pyrrhus fought for glory; and though in every pitched 
battle he was victorious, fresh armies were always ready to oppose him. 
Still hoping to make peace with Rome, he refused to ransom or exchange 
the multitude of prisoners whom he had taken, but he allowed them all 
to return to Rome for the winter holidays — the Saturnalia — on their 
simple promise to return if the Senate refused a treaty. The Senate 
refused, and every man returned. In his second campaign, Pyrrhus 
gained another brilliant victory, at As'culum, over the Romans and their 
allies. But his restless ambition now turned to a new field, and he de¬ 
parted into Sicily, where the Greek cities had implored his aid against 
the Carthaginians. Once master of that fertile island, he believed that 
he could attempt the conquest of Italy with better resources, and he left 
troops to hold Tarentum and Locri for his base of future operations in 
the peninsula. 

84. In Sicily his genius and valor for a time drove all before him. 
The strong town of Eryx was taken, Pyrrhus himself being the first to 
mount the scaling-ladders. The Carthaginians implored peace, offering 
ships and money as the conditions of an alliance. Pyrrhus haughtily 
refused; but a reverse which he afterward suffered at Lilybae'um, en¬ 
couraged his enemies and alienated his allies. Alter two yeais he re¬ 
turned into Italy, pursued by a Carthaginian fleet, which defeated him 
with a loss of seventy ships. On landing, he was met by a body of 
Mamertines,* who had crossed the straits from Sicily, and whom he 
defeated only by a sharp and costly batile. He arrived at Tarentum 
with an army equal in numbers, but far inferior in character, to that 
with which he had come from Epirus four years earlier. His faithful 
Epirotes were slain, and in their places were ill-trained Italian merce¬ 
naries who would serve only as long as pay and plunder abounded. 


* The Mamertines, « Children of Mars,” were a troop of Italian freebooters, 
formerly in the pay of Syracuse, but who had seized Messa'na and other for¬ 
tresses in the north-east of Sicily, massacred the people, and made themselves 

independent. 




282 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


85. Being in great want of money to satisfy these unruly followers, 
Pyrrhus yielded to the advice of his Epicurean courtiers, and appropriated 
the treasures of the temple of Proserpina, at Locri. The money was 
embarked by sea for Tarentum, but a storm drove the sacrilegious vessel 
back upon the coasts of Locri; and Pyrrhus was so affected by remorse, 
that he restored the gold and put to death the counselors. He believed 
that he was ever after haunted by the wrath of Proserpina, which dragged 
him down to ruin. The following year he was totally defeated near 
Beneventum, by Curius Dentatus, the consul. Toward the end of the 
year he passed over into Greece, still leaving a garrison at Tarentum, 
in token of his unconquered resolution to return. 

During the first invasion by Pyrrhus, the Eighth Legion, stationed at 
Rhegium, and composed chiefly of Campanian mercenaries, had, like the 
Mamertines in Sicily, thrown off their allegiance, slaughtered the Greek 
inhabitants, and held the town as an independent military post. They 
were now reduced, and most of the garrison put to the sword; the rest, 
consisting of the original soldiers of the legion, were tried at Rome, 
scourged, and beheaded. 

86. Roman supremacy was now speedily established both in northern 
and southern Italy. Picenum was conquered, and half her inhabitants 
were forcibly removed to the shores of the Gulf of Salerno. Umbria 
submitted B. C. 266, the chief cities of Etruria followed, and the entire 
peninsula south of the Macra and Rubicon became subject to Rome. 
Hitherto the Romans, like the Spartans, had prided themselves upon 
the homeliness of their manners. When the Samnites sent envoys to 
M. Curius to bespeak his kind offices with the Senate, and offer him a 
present of gold, they found the ex-consul seated by his fire and roasting 
turnips in the ashes, with a wooden platter before him. To their prof¬ 
fered gift he replied, “ I count it my glory not to possess gold myself, 
but to have power over those who do.” 

The eleven years following the departure of Pyrrhus were a period of 
the greatest prosperity ever enjoyed by the common people of Rome, 
and the wealth arising from the conquest of Italy materially changed 
their manner of living. Every freeman received a fresh grant of seven 
jugera of land or a portion of money. The property of the displaced 
governments went, of course, to the Roman state, and thus valuable pos¬ 
sessions of mines, quarries, forests, fisheries, and public lands were added 
to its domains. The administration of the public revenues demanded a 
greatly increased number of officials, and the rich, as well as the poor, 
profited by the results of war. 

87. The new territories were secured by that system of colonies which, 
in later times, served to establish the Roman power from the Atlantic 
to the Euphrates. The colonies were of two kinds. Most favored were 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


283 


those composed of “Roman citizens,” who retained all their rights as 
such, voting in the assembly, and being eligible to any office which they 
could have filled if remaining at Rome. Those who joined a “ Latin 
colony,” on the other hand, lost their civil rights in Rome, but they had 
privileges which attached them both by interest and affection to the 
mother city. Ostia, and the maritime colonies generally, were of the 
former and higher class. The great system of Roman roads, which ulti¬ 
mately intersected all western Europe, and may be seen to-day in their 
massive remains, owed its origin to Appius Claudius “the Blind,” who 
when censor, in 312 B. C., constructed the Appian Way to connect Rome 
with her new dependency, Campania. He also built the first of the Roman 
aqueducts, to supply the poorer portion of the city with water. 

88. The free-born plebeians of Rome now possessed half the high offices 
in the state, and even in the sacred colleges of pontiffs and augurs. They 
were admitted to the Senate when they had served as consuls, or had 
been appointed to be either praetors or aediles. Appius Claudius, in his 
censorship, went still further, and placed upon the rolls of the Senate 
the names of some who had been born slaves, or who possessed no lands. 
He enrolled these two very numerous classes in the tribes as voters; and 
instead of assigning them to those of the city, where they almost exclu¬ 
sively belonged, he distributed them over all the districts, so that they 
might control all elections. To rescue Rome from the inevitable rule 
of the mob, his successors in the censorship confined these new votes to 
the city, thus giving them the control only of four tribes out of thirty- 
one, and so the danger was averted. 


BECAPITULATIOH. 

Coalitions in the north and south against the Romans. Siege of Arretium, 
and defeat of Metellus. War with the Senonian and Boian Gauls. Victories of 
Fabricius in the south. Pyrrhus comes to the aid of the Tarentines; defeats the 
Romans at Heraclea, Asculum, etc.; sends Cineas to Rome, whose persuasions 
are thwarted by Appius Claudius the Blind ; passes into Sicily, and after two 
years returns to Epirus. All Italy subject to Rome. Increased wealth and luxury 
of the people. Many new colonies upon the conquered lands. Roads and aque¬ 
ducts are constructed. Freedmen and non-possessors of land admitted to the 
suffrage by Appius Claudius. 


Third Period, B. C. 264-133. 

80. The great commercial Republic of Carthage, though allied with 
Rome during the wars with Pyrrhus, had regarded with jealousy the 
steadily increasing power of the Italian state. The Roman people, on 
the other hand, had been so enriched by their recent wars, that they 
were eager for fresh plunder and a new allotment of conquered lands. 


284 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


A slight and doubtful pretext was, therefore, sufficient to plunge the two 
nations into war. The Carthaginians had seized the citadel of Messana, 
under pretense of aiding the Mamertines against Hi'ero of Syracuse. 
The Romans had recently punished the buccaneers of Rhegium for pre¬ 
cisely the same crime which the “ Sons of Mars ” had committed at 
Messana, but when the latter sought their aid against both Syracusans 
and Carthaginians, the temptation was too great; they accepted the dis¬ 
reputable alliance, and invaded Sicily with 20,000 men. 

90 . Having gained possession of Messana, they kept it for their own. 
The combined forces of Syracuse and Carthage, besieging the place, were 
defeated by Claudius, the consul; and Hiero, being distrustful of his 
African allies, returned home. The next year he made peace with the 
Romans, and continued until his death, nearly half a century later, their 
faithful friend and ally. Most of the Greek cities in Sicily followed his 
example. Hannibal, * son of Gisco, the Carthaginian general, could no 
longer meet the Romans in the field, but shut himself up in Agrigentum 
and was besieged. Hanno, attempting to relieve him, was decisively de¬ 
feated ; the city was taken, and its people were sold as slaves. 

Hannibal, who escaped to Panorhnus (Palermo) with most of his 
troops, now carried the war upon the sea, and ravaged the defenseless 
coasts of Italy with a fleet of sixty vessels. The next year his lieutenant, 
Boo'des, with a naval detachment, met the consul, Scipio, at Lip'ara, 
and captured his whole squadron. Hannibal then set out with fifty ships 
to ravage the coasts of Italy again. But the Romans, wisely learning 
from their enemies, were now prepared to meet them on their own ele¬ 
ment. A Carthaginian quin'quereme (a vessel with five rows of oars) 
had been cast ashore on the coast of Bruttium. It was used as a model, 
and the Romans, who previously had had nothing greater than triremes, 
possessed, within two months, one hundred first-class war vessels. While 
the ships were building, the crews were trained on shore to their peculiar 
and complicated motions. In the very first encounter, Hannibal was 
defeated; in the second, off Mylge, he lost fifty vessels, among them his 
magnificent flag-ship, which had formerly belonged to Pyrrhus. 

91 . In 259 B. C., Sardinia and Corsica were attacked, and the town 
of Ale'ria taken by the Romans. The following year, another great naval 
victory was gained off Ec'nomus, in Sicily ; and the consuls, Manlius and 
Regulus, invaded Africa. They captured and fortified the town of Cly'pea, 
which they made their headquarters, and then proceeded to lay waste the 
lands of Carthage with fife and sword. The beautiful villas of the nobles 

,_,Ey f , ;V . 

*N. B. Not the great Hannibal, who was son of Hamilcar, and hero of the 
Second Punic War. “Punic” is only another form of the adjective Phoenician, 
but is applied especially to the people of Carthage. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


285 


and merchants afforded inestimable spoils; and 20,000 persons, many of 
whom were of exalted rank, and accustomed to all the refinements of 
wealth, were dragged away as slaves. 

In the winter, Manlius returned to Rome with half the army and all 
the plunder, while Regulus remained to prosecute the war. He defeated 
the Carthaginian generals, captured their camp, and overran the country 
at pleasure. More than three hundred walled villages or towns were 
taken. In vain the judges and nobles of Carthage cast their children 
into the brazen arms of Moloch, whence they rolled into the fiery fur¬ 
nace burning always before him. The hideous idol was not appeased, 
and the Roman general was equally implacable. To all embassies he 
refused peace, except on such intolerable terms that even disastrous war 
seemed better. 

92 . At the darkest moment, relief arrived in the person of a Spartan 
general, Xanthippus, who came with a body of Greek mercenaries. Hi» 
military fame and the evident wisdom of his counsels inspired such con¬ 
fidence, that he was put in the place of the incompetent Punic com¬ 
manders. With his 4,000 Greeks, added to the Carthaginian infantry 
and 100 elephants, he defeated and captured Regulus, and wholly de¬ 
stroyed the Roman army. A still more terrible disaster befell the fleet 
which had been sent to bring away the shattered remnants of the forces 
from Africa. A violent storm came on, and the southern coast of Sicily 
was strewn with the remains of 260 vessels and 100,000 men, B. C. 255. 

The Romans, though nearly driven to despair of the republic, never 
relaxed their exertions, but equipped a new fleet, with which, the follow¬ 
ing year, they captured the important town of Panormus. This fleet 
was wrecked, B. C. 253, and the next two years were full of discourage¬ 
ments; but, in 250 B. C., a brilliant victory, won at Panormus by the 
proconsul Metellus, tended to restore the balance of the opposing forces. 
A hundred elephants, taken alive, were exhibited in the triumph of 
Metellus. 

93 . For the next eight years, the advantage was usually with the 
Carthaginians. Hamilcar Barca, the father of the great Hannibal, rav¬ 
aged the coasts of Italy, and the Romans had no leader of equal genius 
to oppose to him. At last they rallied all their .forces to put an end to 
the war. The wealthier citizens at their own expense fitted out a fleet 
of 200 ships, and the consul Luta'tius gained a decisive victory among 
the islands west of Sicily. This reverse, following twenty-three years of 
exhausting war, so disheartened the Carthaginians, that they agreed to 
abandon Sicily and all the neighboring islands, to pay 2,000 talents, 
and release all the Roman prisoners without ransom. 

94 . The First Punic War had lasted nearly twenty-four years, B. C. 
264-241 inclusive. Rome emerged from it a great naval power, able to 


286 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


meet on equal terms the well-trained mariners who had hitherto ruled 
the western Mediterranean. Foreseeing that the struggle must be re¬ 
newed, both parties spent the twenty-three years which followed in 
strenuous preparations. Rome seized upon Sardinia and Corsica; and 
Carthage, absorbed and weakened by a revolt of her mercenary troops, 
was compelled to submit, and even to pay a heavy fine for having pre¬ 
sumed to remonstrate. 

These islands, with Sicily, were placed under proconsular government, 
the system by which Rome afterward managed all her vast foreign pos¬ 
sessions. The two consuls, on completing their year of office, divided 
the “provinces’’ between them by lot or agreement, and each held in 
his own, both militarv and civil control, while the finances were man- 
aged by quaestors responsible only to the Senate. When the provinces 
became numerous, the greater number were governed by pro-praetors. 
One-tenth of the whole produce of these conquered countries was claimed 
by Rome, beside a duty of five per cent on all imports and exports. 

95. By the request of the western Greeks, Rome exerted her new naval 
power in clearing the Adriatic of the Illyrian pirates, who were ravaging 
its coasts and destroying its commerce. Their queen, Teuta, seized the 
Roman embassadors who were first sent into her country, killed two and 
imprisoned the third. In the war which immediately followed, she lost 
the greater part of her dominions, and was compelled to keep her corsairs 
within stricter limits for the future, beside paying a yearly tribute to her 
conquerors. In gratitude for this important service, the Romans were 
admitted to equal rights with the Hellenic race in the Isthmian Games 
and the Eleusinian Mysteries, B. C. 228. 

96. While thus asserting her power in the Greek peninsula, Rome 
desired to extend her Italian dominion to its natural limit in the Alpine 
range. The Gauls were not slow in taking the alarm. Obtaining fresh 
forces from their kinsmen beyond the mountains, they advanced into 
central Italy, and, overrunning Etruria, threatened Rome again as in the 
days of Brennus. Three armies were quickly in the field to oppose them; 
and though one was routed, another, under the consul iEmiFius, aided 
by Regulus, * who had unexpectedly arrived from Sardinia, gained a 
decisive victory which nearly destroyed the Gallic host. Within three 
years all Cisalpine Gaul submitted to Rome, B. C. 222. Mediola'num 
and Comum (Milan and Como), as well as Placen'tia, Parma, Mode'na, 
Man'tua, Ven/na, and Brix / ia, were occupied by Roman colonies, con¬ 
nected with the capital by the great military road called the Flaminian 
Way, and its continuations. 


* Son of the Regulus who invaded Africa f? 91), and who fell a victim to Car¬ 
thaginian vengeance. 



HISTORY OF ROME . 


287 


97 . Carthage, meanwhile, had yielded only from necessity, and for a 
time, to the superior power of Rome. A large majority of her citizens 
were for renewing the war at the earliest possible moment; and to recruit 
her power and wealth, Hamilcar had devoted all his energies to the con¬ 
quest of the Spanish peninsula, B. C. 236-228. After his death, his 
son-in-law, Has'drubal, organized and developed the resources of the 
country by building towns, encouraging trade and tillage, training the 
native tribes into efficient soldiers, and working the newly discovered 
silver mines, which, beside paying all the expenses of the province, were 
rapidly filling up the home treasury. Rome, with her command of the 
sea, secured from fear of invasion, saw without uneasiness the prosperity 
of her rival. But an item which no one could have foreseen, the genius 
of Hannibal, was now to be added to the resources of Carthage. 

98 . At nine years of age he had accompanied his father into Spain, 
and before the altar of his country’s gods had taken a solemn oath of 
eternal and unrelenting enmity to Rome. The oath of the child had not 
been forgotten by the youth. At the age of eighteen he fought by his 
father’s side in the battle where Hamilcar was slain; and during the 
following eight years of Hasdrubal’s administration, that general intrusted 
his young brother-in-law with the command of most of his military en¬ 
terprises. Upon the death of Hasdrubal, the army by acclamation placed 
Hannibal at its head, and the government at home neither could nor 
would annul the appointment. 

Having confirmed his power in Spain by two years’ war against the 
native tribes, Hannibal deliberately sought the quarrel with Rome to 
which he had devoted his life. The Greek city of Saguntum had placed 
itself under the protection of Rome. It was attacked by Hannibal, and 
taken after an obstinate defense of eight months. The Romans sent to 
Carthage to demand the surrender of the young general for this breach 
of the treaty. The reply was a declaration of war. 

99 . Leaving his brother Hasdrubal in charge of Spain, Hannibal pre¬ 
pared for a bolder movement than the Romans had foreseen. He knew 
that the great mountain-barrier of the Alps had already often been traversed 
by the Gauls, and he relied upon finding able guides among this people, 
who were mostly friendly to Carthage. He resolved, therefore, on the 
hitherto unprecedented feat of leading an army from Spain into Italy by 
land. Having offered, during the winter, solemn sacrifices and prayers for 
success, at the distant shrine of the Tyrian Hercules at Gades, he set forth 
from Carthagena, in the spring of 218 B. C., with an army of 90,000 foot, 
12,000 horse, and a considerable number of elephants. The Spanish tribes 
between the Ebro and the Pyrenees were yet to be overcome. They re¬ 
sisted bravely, but were subdued, and a force of 11,000 men was left to 
hold them in subjection. 


288 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


100 . Having passed the Pyrenees, Hannibal advanced through friendly 
tribes of Gauls to the Rhone, which he crossed near the modern town of 
Orange, gaining an advance of three days upon the army of Scipio, the 
consul, who had intended to stop him. The passage of the Alps, with such 
a force, was one of the greatest military achievements of ancient times. 
The higher mountains were already obstructed by the snows of early 
autumn; hostile tribes contested his passage in narrow and dangerous 
defiles; and in two fierce battles, the army of Hannibal narrowly escaped 
total destruction. When, after fifteen days of toilsome and dangerous 
marching, he emerged into the plain of the Po, it was with scarcely more 
than one-fourth of the great army which had accompanied him from 
Carthagena. 

101 . The Insubrian Gauls welcomed Hannibal as their deliverer from 
the hated power of Rome. After a short period of rest in their hospitable 
country, he sought Scipio, and totally routed his forces in a battle on the 
TicPnus. By a still greater victory on the Tre'bia, over the forces of the 
two consuls (Dec., 218 B. C.), Hannibal became master of northern Italy. 
All the Gauls who had wavered now hastened to join his standard; but 
the gain from this quarter was balanced by the irreparable loss of his 
elephants, and the severe suffering of his African and Spanish troops from 
the unwonted coldness of the winter. 

In the spring of 217 B. C., he crossed the Apennines, and traversed the 
marshes of the Arno, a passage of tremendous difficulty, in which many 
of his beasts of burden perished. Again seeking battle, Hannibal passed 
the army of Flaminius at Arretium, and laid waste the country toward 
Peru'sia, thus provoking the consul to follow. When he had drawn the 
Roman army into a most perilous position, between precipitous cliffs and 
the Lake Thrasymene, he let loose his Gauls and Numidians to the attack. 
The defeat of the Romans was overwhelming: thousands were forced into 
the lake; thousands fell by the sword, among whom was Flaminius him¬ 
self ; and 15,000 prisoners remained in the hands of the enemy. 

102 . A panic seized Rome; the conqueror was instantly expected at her 
gates, and Fabius was elected dictator with unlimited powers. But Han¬ 
nibal had sought to detach the Italian allies from Rome, by releasing 
without ransom all their prisoners whom he had taken. Wishing to give 
time for the disunion to take effect, he turned aside into Apulia, where he 
rested and recruited his troops worn by so many hardships. 

It was already proved in three battles that the Carthaginian was irre¬ 
sistible in the field. The policy of Fabius, therefore, was to avoid a 
general engagement, while he annoyed and weakened his enemy by cutting 
off his foraging parties, and otherwise harassing his march. In vain Han¬ 
nibal crossed the Apennines into the rich Campanian fields, plundering 
and destroying the crops; he could neither capture a town nor entice 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


288 


1^ abius into a battle. The latter fortified the Samnian mountain-passes, 
thinking to catch his enemy in a trap; but Hannibal eluded the snare and 
retired safe into Apulia, laden with abundant provision for the comfort of 
his winter-quarters. 

103 . Great discontent was felt at Rome with the cautious policy of the 
dictator, and, in the spring of 216 B. C., an army of nearly 90,000 men was 
led into Apulia by the two consuls ^Emilius Paulus and Terentius Varro. 
They were met by Hannibal on the plain of the Aufidus, near the little 
town of Cannse. The Carthaginians were inferior in numbers but superior 
in discipline, especially in the Numidian horsemen, who had always been 
victorious in an open field. Never had the Romans suffered so overwhelm¬ 
ing a defeat. Their army was annihilated. From 40,000 to 50,000 men 
lay dead upon the plain, among whom were iEmilius the consul, eighty 
senators, and the flower of Roman knighthood. Varro, the other consul, 
with a small but resolute band, made his way in good order from the 
battle-field; the rest of the survivors were either dispersed or taken 
prisoners. 

104 . Southern Italy was now lost to Rome. Except the Roman colo¬ 
nies and the Greek cities held by Roman garrisons, all submitted to Han¬ 
nibal. Capua opened her gates and became the winter-quarters of the 
African army. Philip of Macedon and Hieron'ymus of Syracuse made 
alliance with Carthage, and wars with these two powers divided the atten¬ 
tion of the Romans. Still, beside keeping two armies in the foreign fields, 
they occupied every province of Italy with a separate force; and though 
too wise to meet Hannibal again in a general engagement, hemmed him in 
closely and cut oft’ his supplies. The great general was now but faintly 
supported at home, and the ungenerous policy of Carthage probably de¬ 
prived her of the conquest of Italy. 

105 . Three years, therefore, passed with no decisive events. In 212 B. C., 
Syracuse was taken by Marcellus after two- years’ siege. The attacks of the 
Romans had been long foiled by the skill of Archimedes, the philosopher, 
who is said to have burnt their ships at the distance of a bow-shot from 
the w r alls, by means of a combination of mirrors which concentrated the 
sun’s rays. He constructed powerful engines, which, when attached to the 
walls, grappled the Roman ships and lifted them out of the water; and, 
in short, the’brain of Archimedes was a better defense to Syracuse than 
the arms of all her soldiers. In the taking of the city, the philosopher 
was slain by some ignorant troopers; but Marcellus deeply regretted the 
event. He ordered him to be buried with high honors, and distinguished 
his family by many marks of friendship. 

106 . Hannibal had been long anxiously awaiting the arrival of his 
brother from Spain; but the generalship of the two Scipios, Cneius and 
Publius, who conducted the war in that country, and more especially the 

A. H.—19. 


290 


ANCIEXT HISTORY. 


brilliant genius of tlie son of the latter, afterward known as Africanus, had 
detained Hasdrubal and involved him in many disasters, even the loss of 
his capital, Carthagena. At last, in 208 B. C., Hasdrubal left Spain to the 
care of two other generals, and striking out a new path, as his brother’s 
route of eleven years before was now guarded by the Romans, he crossed 
the Pyrenees at their western extremity and plunged into the heart of 
Gaul. Many of the restless people flocked to his standard, and he “ de¬ 
scended from the Alps like a rolling snow-ball, far greater than he came 
'over the Pyrenees.” 

He found some of HannibaPs roads uninjured; the mountaineers made 
no effort to dispute his passage, and he arrived in Italy before he was ex¬ 
pected, so that no Roman army was ready to receive him. He might, 
perhaps, have settled once for all the supremacy of Carthage by marching 
directly on Rome, for the resources of the Republic, both in men and 
money, had been drained to the utmost, and another Thrasymene or 
Cannse would have ended her existence. 

107 . Hasdrubal lost time in the siege of Placentia, and his letter, de¬ 
scribing to Hannibal his plan of operations, fell into the hands of Nero, 
the consul, who, by a rapid and secret march, joined his colleague at Sena 
with 7,000 men, leaving the main part of his army still facing Hannibal in 
the south. Hasdrubal was uninformed of the reinforcement of his enemv, 

f 

but his quick ear caught one more trumpet-note than usual, at sunrise, in 
the Roman camp; and as he rode forth to reconnoiter, he discovered that 
the horses appeared over-driven, and the armor of the men stained. He 
therefore delayed until night-fall, and then moved to cross the river Me- 
taiPrus in search of a stronger position. But his guides betrayed him, and 
when morning dawned his worn and weary troops were still on the nearer 
side of the river, where they were soon overtaken by the foe. He made 
the best arrangement of his men which the crisis would admit, placing 
the ten elephants in front “ like a line of moving fortresses,” his veteran 
Spanish infantry on the right, the Ligurians in the center, and the Gauls 
on the left. 

The battle was fiercely contested, for both armies felt that the decision 
of the day would be final, and that there was no hope for the vanquished. 
At last Nero, by a circuitous movement, fell upon the Spanish infantry, 
which had already borne the brunt of the fighting. Hasdrubal saw that 
the day was lost, and scorning to survive his men or to adorn a Roman 
triumph, he spurred his horse into the midst of a cohort, and died, sword 
in hand, B. C. 207. 

108 . The consul Nero returned to his camp before Hannibal had even 
discovered his absence. Hasdrubal’s arrival in Italy, the battle and its 
result were first made known to the great general by seeing the ghastly 
head of his brother, which Nero had brutally ordered to be thrown within 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


291 


his lines. Hannibal read the tale of disaster in the terrible message, and 
groaned aloud that he recognized the fate of Carthage. Though he re¬ 
mained four years strongly posted in the mountain fastnesses of Bruttium, 
the issue of the war was already decided. In 204 B. C., the younger Scipio 
crossed into Africa, and the Carthaginians were compelled to recall Han¬ 
nibal. 

The final battle was fought at Zama, B. C. 202. The great Carthaginian 
displayed again, his perfect generalship, but he had no longer his invincible 
cavalry, and his elephants were rendered useless by the skillful tactics of 
Scipio. He was defeated with the loss of 20,000 men slain, and an equal 
number of prisoners. The peace, concluded in the following year, took 
from Carthage all her possessions beyond the limits of Africa, and all the 
lands conquered from Numidia, whose king, Mas'sinis'sa, had rendered 
important aid to Scipio in the recent war. She surrendered, also, her fleet 
and elephants, promised a yearly tribute of 200 talents, and engaged to 
make no war without permission from Borne. 

EECAPITTJLATIOIT. 

The First Punic War (B. C. 264-241) begins with the invasion of Sicily by the 
Romans, who are joined by many Greek cities, capture Messana and Agrigentum, 
equip a fleet upon a Carthaginian model, and gain many naval victories. They 
invade Africa, and ravage the lands of Carthage almost without opposition; but 
Xanthippiis arrives with auxiliaries, defeats and captures Regulus. Five years of 
disaster to the Romans are followed by the great victory of Metellus at Palermo; 
and after eight years of again unsuccessful warfare, the victory of Lutatius among 
the vEgates ends the contest. During the peace which follows, Sardinia and Cor¬ 
sica are seized by the Romans, and placed under proconsular government; the 
Illyrian pirates are subdued, B. C. 229, 228; Cisalpine Gaul conquered, B. C. 225-222. 
The Second Punic War is begun, B. C. 218, by Hannibal. He crosses the Pyrenees 
and Alps, defeats the Romans on the Ticinus and the Trebia, and still more dis¬ 
astrously near the Lake Thrasymene and at Cannse. Syracuse, though defended 
by the science of Archimedes, is captured by Mareellus. The three Scipios make 
successful war in Spain. Hasdrubal comes at last to the relief of his brother, 
but is defeated and slain on the Metaurus, B. C. 207. Hannibal is recalled to Africa, 
and finally defeated at Zama by Scipio Africanus, B. C. 202. 


Extension of Boman Power. 

109 . A triumph was awarded to Scipio, who was received at Borne with 
unbounded enthusiasm. The Triumph , which was the highest reward a 
Boman general could attain, may here be described once for all. The 
victorious chief waited without the walls until the Senate had decided 
upon his claim to the honor. Several conditions were to be observed: 
the victory must have been over foreign and not domestic foes; it must 
have been, not the recovery of something lost, but an actual extension of 
Boman territory; the war must be completed and the army withdrawn 
from the field, for the soldiers were entitled to a share in the triumph of 


292 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


their general. The honor was limited to persons of consular or, at least, 
praetorian rank; an officer of lower grade might receive an ovation, in 
which he entered the city on foot, but the chariot was a mark of kingly 
state which could only be permitted to the highest. 

110 . If a triumph was decreed, a special vote of the people continued 
to the general his military command for the day within the walls, for 
without a suspension of the law, he must have laid it down on entering 
the gates. On the appointed day, he was met at the Triumphal Gate by 
the Senate and all the magistrates, in splendid apparel. Taking the lead 
of the procession, they were followed by a band of trumpeters, and a train 
of wagons laden with the spoils of the conquered countries, which were 
indicated by tablets inscribed in large letters with their names. Models in 
wood or ivory of the captured cities; pictures of mountains, rivers, or other 
natural features of the regions subdued; loads of gold, silver, precious 
stones, vases, statues, and whatever was most rich, curious, or admirable 
in the spoils of temples and palaces, made an important part of the display. 
Then came a band of flute players, preceding the white oxen destined for 
sacrifice, their horns gilded and adorned with wreaths of flowers and fillets 
of wool. Elephants and other strange animals from the conquered coun¬ 
tries, were followed by a train of captive princes or leaders with their 
families, and a crowd of captives of inferior rank, loaded with fetters. 

Then came the twelve lictors of the imperator in single file, their fasces 
wreathed in laurel; and, lastly, the triumphant general himself, in his cir¬ 
cular chariot drawn by four horses. His robes glistened with golden em¬ 
broidery ; he bore a scepter, and upon his head was a wreath of Delphic 

laurel. A slave standing behind him held a crown of Etruscan gold; he 

♦ 

was instructed to whisper from time to time in his master’s ear, “ Remem¬ 
ber that thou art but a man.” Behind the general rode his sons and lieu¬ 
tenants, and then came the entire army, their spears adorned with laurels — 
who either sang hymns of praise, or amused themselves and the bv-standers 
with coarse jokes and doggerel verses at their general’s expense. This rude 
license of speech was thought to neutralize the effect of overmuch flattery, 
which the Romans, like the modern Italians, were taught especially to 
dread. All the people, in gala dress, thronged the streets, and every 
temple and shrine were adorned with flowers. 

111. As a terrible contrast to the joy of the day, just as the procession 
had nearly finished its course to the Capitol, some of the captured chiefs 
were led aside and put to death. When their execution was announced, 
the sacrifices were offered in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter; the 
laurel crown of the general was placed in the lap of the image; a magnifi¬ 
cent banquet was served, and the “ triumphator ” was escorted home, late 
in the evening, by a crowd of citizens bearing torches and pipes. The state 
presented him a site for a house, and at the entrance to this triumphal 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


293 


mansion, a laurel-wreathed statue of its founder perpetuated the memory 
of his glory to his latest descendants. 

112 . Carthage being stripped of her power and possessions, Rome be¬ 
came supreme in the western Mediterranean and the greater part of Spain. 
The confiscated lands of the Italian nations which had taken sides with 
Hannibal, afforded settlements for large bodies of veteran soldiers. The 
Cisalpine Gauls were still in revolt, under the lead of a Carthaginian, 
general; but they were reduced by a ten years’ war (B. C. 201-191), and 
afterward became Latinized with that wonderful facility which distin¬ 
guishes their race. 

113 . The Alexandrine kingdoms in the East were all prematurely old 
and falling into decay. The campaigns of Flamininus against Philip of 
Macedon, B. C. 198, 197, have been already described. (See Book IV, 
|| 81-83.) A new war for the protectorate of Greece was occasioned by the 
movements of Antiochus the Great. This ambitious and restless monarch 
not only welcomed to his court the now exiled Hannibal, but allied him¬ 
self with the iEtolians and led an army to their aid. He had miscalculated 
the power of Rome, which met him promptly with much more than twice 
his numbers, defeated him once by land and twice by sea, and finally, in 
the great battle of Magnesia, in Lydia, shattered his forces, while beginning 
her own long career of Asiatic conquest. The lands conquered from Anti¬ 
ochus were divided between the friendly powers of Pergamus and Rhodes, 
and the example of their good fortune led many other nations to seek the 
Roman alliance. 

114 . For more than twenty years, Rome was occupied with continual 
wars in the west, against the brave and freedom-loving tribes of Spain and 
the Ligurian Alps, as well as with the natives of Corsica and Sardinia. 
The latter island was conquered, B. C. 176, by Sempronius Gracchus, who 
brought away so great a multitude of captives, that Sardinians foi sale 
became a proverbial phrase in Rome for anything cheap and worthless. 

Meanwhile, Philip V. had died in Macedon, and Perseus had succeeded 
to the throne. The final struggle of this prince with Rome, and its result 
in the battle of Pydna (B. C. 168), have been described in Book IV. 
Rome became for six centuries what Macedon had been only during one 
man’s short career, the undisputed ruler of the civilized world. None 
except barbarians any longer hoped to resist her ascendency; and but for 
a few revolts, like those of the Achaeans, the Carthaginians, and the Jews, 
her progress in absorbing the old states of Asia, Africa, and Europe was 
both peaceful and rapid. 

115 . After eighteen years of comparative tranquillity, it was resol\ ed 
that the time had come for the complete extinction of Carthage. Cato, 
the censor, now eighty-four years of age, and the sternest of Roman legis¬ 
lators, declared that Rome could never be safe while her former rival was 


294 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


so near, so hostile, and so strong; and whenever he was called upon for 
his vote in the Senate, whatever might be the subject of debate, his un¬ 
varying reply was, “ I vote that Carthage no longer be.” The doomed 
city had more than fulfilled every condition of the treaty which closed the 
First Punic War, and still made many sacrifices for the sake of peace. 
But the last command of Home was not intended to be obeyed. The Car¬ 
thaginians were ordered to destroy their city, and remove to a situation 
farther from the sea. They refused, and a war began, in which, for four 
years, the brave spirit of the people sustained them without the faintest 
hope of victory. 

110 . Their fleet, their weapons, and their mines in Spain, Sardinia, and 
Elba had all been surrendered to the enemy. In two months 120 ships 
were built in the blockaded port, and a passage cut through the land to 
enable them to reach the sea. Public buildings were torn down to furnish 
timber and metal. Every living being toiled night and day at the defenses. 
An arsenal was established which daily produced 2,000 shields or weapons, 
and even the women contributed their long hair to make strings for the 
engines which hurled stones or arrows from the walls. 

At length the Romans, under the consul Scipio iEmilia'nus, forced their 
way into the city. The people defended it house by house, and street by 
street, and days of carnage were still required to quench the pride of Car¬ 
thage in ashes and blood. The city was fired in all directions, and when, 
after seventeen days, the flames were at last extinguished, nothing remained 
but shapeless heaps of rubbish. The territories of the Punic state became 
the “Province of Africa,” whose capital was fixed at Utica. Roman traders 
flocked to the latter city, and took into their own hands the flourishing 
commerce of the coast. 

117 . In the same year, B. C. 146, L. Mum'mius, the consul, plundered 
and destroyed Corinth. Its walls and houses were leveled with the ground, 
and a curse was pronounced on whomsoever should build on its desolate site. 
Its commerce passed to Argos and Delos, while the care of the Isthmian 
Games was intrusted to Sicyon. The policy of Rome toward the Greeks 
was far more liberal than toward any other conquered people. Her firm 
and settled government was, indeed, preferable to the dissension and mis¬ 
rule which disfigured the later ages of Greece; and the Greeks themselves 
declared, in the words of Themistocles, that “ ruin had averted ruin.” 

118 . The natives of western Spain, intrenched among their mountains, 
still maintained a brave resistance to the power of Rome. The Lusitanians, 
who had never yet been conquered, were basely deceived by Serto'rius 
Galba, who enticed 7,000 of them from their strongholds by promising 
grants of fertile lands ; and when, trusting the word of a Roman general, 
they had descended into the plain, he caused them to be treacherously 
surrounded, disarmed, and either massacred or enslaved. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


295 


Among the few who escaped was a youth named Viria'thus, who lived 
to become the leader and avenger of his people. The career of this guer¬ 
rilla chief is full of stirring events. Issuing suddenly from a cleft in the 
mountains, he seven times defeated a Roman army with tremendous 
slaughter. In the last of these victories, the forces of Servilia'nus were 
entrapped in a narrow pass and completely surrounded. Absolute sur¬ 
render was their only choice. Viriathus, however, preferring peace to 
vengeance, used his advantage with great moderation. He allowed his 
enemy to depart unhurt, on his solemn engagement to leave the Lusita- 
nians henceforth unmolested in their own territories, and to recognize 
him, their chief, as a friend and ally of the Roman people. 

119 . The terms were ratified by the Senate, but only to be violated. 
On the renewal of the war, Viriathus sent three of his most trusted friends 
to remonstrate, and offer renewed terms of peace. The consul bribed these 
messengers, by promises of large rewards, to murder their chief. The crime 
was committed, and within a year Lusita'nia (Portugal) was added to 
the Roman dominions. Numantia, in the north, still held out against the 
besieging army of Qu. Pompe'ius. A severe winter caused great sickness 
and suffering in the legions, and Pompey offered peace on terms favorable 
to the Spaniards, but, according to Roman ideas, disgraceful to the be¬ 
siegers. These were accepted, and the last payment but one had been 
made by the Numantines, when Pompey’s successor in the consulship 
arrived at the camp. Being thus relieved from command, he denied that 
he had ever made the treaty, and persisted in his falsehood before the 
Senate. 

The war went on six years, with no credit and frequent disgrace to the 
Romans, until Scipio iEmilianus, the greatest general of his own time, 
starved the city at last into surrender. Many of the Numantines, rather 
than fall into the hands of an enemy whose perfidy they had too often 
proved, set fire to their houses and perished among the burning ruins. 
The whole peninsula, except its northern coast, was now subject to Rome. 
It was divided into three provinces —Hither and Farther Spain, and Lu¬ 
sitania— and became eventually the most prosperous and best governed 
part of the Roman foreign possessions. The Lusitanian mountains were 
still haunted by brigands, and isolated country houses in that region had 
to be built like fortresses; yet the country was rich in corn and cattle, 
and occupied by a thriving and industrious people. 

• 

RECAPITULATIOIT. 

Rome, supreme in tlie western Mediterranean, makes wav upon Philip \ ., of 
Macedon, and Antiochus the Great, of Syria. The battle of Magnesia, B. C . 190, 
lays the foundation of her power in Asia^ and the battle ol Pydna makes hei 
the head of the civilized world. In the meanwhile, Sardinia is conquered, and 
wars carried on in Spain and Biguria. I he third and last Punic Wai ends, 


296 


ANCIENT HIST OR Y. 


B. C. 146, with the destruction of Carthage. The same year, Corinth is destroyed 
by Mumrnius. Viriathus holds out nine years in western Spain; he is assas-. 
sinated B. C. 140; Numantia is captured B. C. 133; and Spain divided into three 
Roman provinces. 


Fourth Period, B. C. 133-30. 

120 . The possessions of Rome now extended from the Atlantic to the 
iEgean, and from the Atlas Mountains to the Pyrenees and Alps.' But 
changes in the relations of rich and poor, governing and governed classes, 
in her own capital, now withdrew her attention for a while from foreign 
conquests, and led to important civil controversies. The old strife between 
patricians and plebeians was long ago at an end. Many plebeian houses 
had become noble through their members having held high offices in the 
state; and they had their clientage, their share in the public lands, their 
seat in the Senate, and their right of displaying waxen images of their 
ancestors in their houses or in funeral processions, equally with the oldest 
burghers of all. Freedmen were constantly admitted to the franchise. 

121 . The real cause of trouble was in the sufferings of the poor, who, 
since the formation of the last colony, in 177 B. C., had had no new allot¬ 
ment of lands. Rome was a “ commonwealth of millionaires and beggars.” 
The Licinian laws (see $ 64) were practically set aside. Many rich pro¬ 
prietors held four times the amount of public land to which they were 
entitled; and instead of employing the required proportion of free labor, 
preferred to cultivate by means of gangs of slaves. The foreign wars, 
which formerly so frightfully reduced* the numbers of the common, 
people, had now ceased; the labor market became over-stocked, and a 
mass of paupers, hungry, helpless, and hopeless, began to threaten serious 
danger to the state. The multitude of slaves, chiefly taken in war, more 
or less trained for fighting, and conscious of their strength, were a not less 
dangerous class. The best and wisest of the Romans saw the danger, and 
sought means to avert it. But among those who most deeply deplored the 
miseries of the people, a large party believed that nothing could be done. 

122 . In 133 B. C., the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, a son of the con¬ 
queror of Sardinia, and grandson of Scipio Africanus, brought forward a 
bill for reviving the provisions of the Licinian laws. The great amount 
of state lands which would thus become vacant, he proposed to divide 
among the poor; and to compensate the former occupants for their losses, 
by making them absolute owners of the 500 jugera of land which they 
could legally retain. This movement, apparently so just, was violently 
opposed. The leased lands had been, in some instances, three hundred 


Duiing the seventeen years of the Second Punic War, the free citizens of 
Rome were diminished by one-fourth, and in Italy at large 300,000 people per¬ 
ished. 




HISTORY OF ROME. 


297 


years in tlie same family. Buildings had been erected at great expense, 
and the property had been held or transferred as if in real ownership, 
lhe strong influence ol the wealthy class was therefore made to bear 
against the bill; and when it was brought before the popular assembly, 
Octa / vius, a colleague of Gracchus in the tribuneship, interposed his veto 
and prevented the vote from being taken. But Gracchus moved the 
people to depose Octavius, and so carried the bill. Three commissioners, 
libei ius Gracchus himselt, his brother Caius, and his father-in-law, Appius 
Claudius, were appointed to examine into the extent of the abuse, and 
enforce the Agrarian laws. 

123 . Their task was difficult, and Tiberius had to content the people by 
continually bringing forward more and more popular measures. The 
kingdom of Pergamus, with its treasury, had just become the inheritance 
of the Romans. Gracchus proposed that the money should be distributed 
among the new land-holders, to provide implements and stock for their 
farms. Other proposals were for shortening the term of military service, 
for extending the privilege of jury to the common people, and for admit¬ 
ting the Italian allies to the rights of Roman citizens. The aristocratic 
party had declared from the beginning that this bold innovator should not 
escape their vengeance. His candidacy for a second tribuneship brought 
the opposition to a crisis. Tiberius was slain upon the steps of the Capitol, 
and his body thrown into the Tiber. 

124 :. Though the reformer was dead, his reform went on. The party in 
power earnestly desired to relieve the public danger and distress, and, by 
order of the Senate, the commission continued the distribution of lands. 
A law proposed by Scipio iEmilianus, B. C. 129, withdrew the work from 
the hands of the commissioners, and placed it permanently in those of the 
consuls. The lands which were really public property were by this time 
distributed, and questions had arisen concerning territories which had 
been granted to Italian allies. “The greatest general and the greatest 
statesman of his age,” Scipio saw as clearly and lamented as deeply as the 
Gracchi the needs of his country, and, with unselfishness equal to theirs, 
he sought to check the reform, when convinced that it had gone as far as 
justice would permit. But he, too, became a martyr to his efforts. Soon 
after the passage of his bill, and on the morning of the day appointed for 
his oration upon popular rights, he was found murdered in his bed. 

125 . Caius Gracchus returned from his qusestorship in Sardinia, B. C. 
124, and became tribune of the people. His plans for relieving the poorer 
classes were more revolutionary than those of his brother, but many of 
them were most beneficent and widely reaching in their results. Colonies 
were formed, both in Italy and beyond the sea, to afford an outlet to the 
crowded and distressed population of Rome. Six thousand colonists were 
sent to the deserted site of Carthage; another company to Aquae Sextiae 


298 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


(Aix), in southern Gaul; and a third, with the full “Roman right,” to 
Narbo Martius (Narbonne'). The latter colony, though not founded 
until after the death of Caius, was equally a fruit of his policy. It was 
fostered by the commercial class, for the sake ot its lucrative tiade with 
Gaul and Britain. 

A less beneficent though doubtless needed law, provided for the distii- 
button of grain from the public stores, at less than halt price, to all resi= 
dents in the city who chose to apply for it. An extensive range ot 
buildings, the Sempronian granaries, were erected to supply this demand. 
The result was the crowding within the walls ot Rome ot the whole mass 
of poor and inefficient people from the surrounding country, thus giving to 
the popular leaders a majority in the assembly, and the absolute control 
of the elections; creating, at the same time, that lazy, hungry, and disor¬ 
derly mob which for five hundred years constituted the chief danger of the 
imperial city. 

126 . The lowest age for military service was fixed at seventeen years, 
and the cost of the soldier’s equipment, which formerly had been deducted 
from his wages, was now defrayed by the government. Having thus won 
the poorer people, Caius drew to his side the plebeian aristocracy, by 
placing in their hands the collection of revenues in the provinces, thus 
creating the class of great merchants and bankers, hitherto scarcely known 
in Rome. The new “ province of Asia ” had been formed from the king¬ 
dom of Pergamus, and its name, like that of “Africa” given to the Car¬ 
thaginian territory, doubtless implied that its limits were not considered as 
fixed. In accordance with the despotic principle that conquered or inher¬ 
ited lands were the private property of the state, the province was now 
loaded with taxes, and the privilege of collection was publicly sold at 
Rome to the highest bidder. The “publicans” amassed great fortunes, 
but the unhappy provincials were reduced to extreme distress. 

127 . Gracchus would have gone a step farther, and extended the full 
rights of Roman citizenship to all free Italians. But this liberal policy 
was equally hateful to the Senate and the commons. The former gained 
over his colleague, Liv'ius Drusus, who outbade Gracchus by proposing" 
still more popular measures, which, however, were never meant to be ful¬ 
filled. Instead of two Italian colonies, composed only of citizens of good 
character, which had been planned'by Gracchus, Drusus proposed twelve, 
to contain 3,000 settlers each. Caius had left the domain lands subject, 
as of old, to a yearly rent. Drusus abolished this, and left the lessees in 
absolute possession of their farms. 

At the end of the second year, Caius lost his tribuneship, and the new 
consuls were opposed to him. His policy was now violently attacked, and 
especially the formation of the transmarine colonies. It was reported that 
African hyenas had dug up the newly placed boundary stones of Juno'nia,, 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


299 


the successor of Carthage; and the priests declared that the gods in this 
way signified their displeasure at the attempt to rebuild an accursed city. 
The auguries were taken anew; a popular tumult arose, in which an 
attendant ot the priests was killed. The next day the Forum was occu¬ 
pied by an armed force, and all the aristocratic party appeared with 
swords and shields. Caius and his former colleague, Ful'vius Flaccus, 
retired with their followers to the Aventine, the old stronghold of the 
commons. The nobility, with their Cretan mercenaries, stormed the 
mount; 250 persons of humble rank were slain, and the two leaders 
were pursued and put to death. Three thousand of their adherents 
were strangled in prison, by order of the Senate. Cornelia,* the mother 
of the Gracchi, was not permitted to wear mourning for the last and 
noblest of her sons; but the people honored their memory with statues, 
and on the sacred ground where they had fallen, sacrifices were offered as 
in temples of the gods. 

128 . Next to Egypt, the most important client-state of Rome was 
Numidia, which occupied nearly the same space with the modern province 
of Algeria. Massinissa, the Numidian king, had been rewarded for his 
faithful service in the Second Punic War, by a grant of the greater part 
of the Carthaginian territories. Micip'sa, his son, was now a feeble old 
man, who cared more for Greek philosophy than for affairs of state, and 
had dropped the control of his kingdom into the hands of his nephew, 
JuguFtha, whom he raised by adoption to a level with his own sons. In 
his will he divided the civil, military, and judicial offices of the kingdom 
between the three princes. 

After the old king’s death, his sons, AdheFbal and Hiemp'sal, disputed 
the will, while Jugurtha boldly claimed the supreme and sole authority. 
Hiempsal was murdered by hired ruffians. Adherbal appealed in person to 
the Roman Senate, which had undertaken to guarantee his father’s bequests. 
But Jugurtha had learned in the camps that every senator had his price; 
and his emissaries worked so skillfully, that the whole blame of the dispute 
and the murder was thrown upon the suppliant prince. A new division 
of the kingdom was ordered to be made, by Roman commissioners sent 
over for the purpose. Jugurtha received the fertile and populous region 


* This illustrious lady was a daughter of Scipio Africanus, the greatest general 
save one, and, perhaps, the greatest character, whom Rome ever produced. 
Cornelia, after the early death of her husband, devoted herself to the education 
of her children, and*was rewarded for her care by their perfect respect and love. 
After the death of Caius, she retired to Misenum, where her house became the 
resort of all the genius and learning of the age. Cornelia not only spoke her 
own language with the utmost elegance, but was well acquainted with Greek 
literature, and her letters to her sons are considered the purest specimens of 
Latin prose. She died in a good old age, and the people erected a statue to her 
memory, with the simple inscription, “Cornelia, the Mother of the Gracchi.” 



300 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


which was afterward known as Mauritania; Adherbal, with Cirta, the 
capital, had only a tract of sandy desert toward the east. 

129 . Jugurtha, however, was not satisfied; and failing by many insults 
to provoke his cousin to war, he at last besieged him in his capital, and 
in spite of lame remonstrances from Rome, captured and put him to death 
with cruel tortures, and ordered an indiscriminate massacre of all the in¬ 
habitants of the town. Of these, many were Italians. Even the base 
venality of the Roman government could no longer withstand the righteous 
indignation of the people. War was declared and an army promptly sent 
forward, which received the submission of many Numidian towns. But 
again the wily usurper was able to buy peace with African gold. He pre¬ 
tended to submit at discretion, but was re-instated in his kingdom upon 
paying a moderate fine and surrendering his war elephants, which he was 
soon permitted to redeem. Public indignation again broke out at Rome. 
Jugurtha was summoned to the city, to answer concerning the means by 
which he had obtained the peace. His cousin, MassPva, took this oppor¬ 
tunity to prefer his own claim to the kingdom of Massinissa; but he was 
assassinated by a confidant of Jugurtha, who immediately, with the aid 
of his master, escaped from Rome. 

130 . This new insult enraged the people beyond endurance. The Senate 
canceled the peace and dismissed Jugurtha from the city. His sarcastic 
remark in leaving expressed a melancholy truth: “ If I had gold enough, 
I would buy the city itself.” The war was renewed, but the army, equally 
demoralized with its chiefs, was wholly unfit for service. In attempting 
to besiege the treasure-town of Suthul, the incompetent commander suf¬ 
fered himself to be drawn off into the desert, where his whole army was 
routed and made to pass under the yoke. By the terms of surrender, 
Numidia was evacuated and the canceled peace renewed. The generals 
whose misconduct had led to this disgrace were tried at Rome and exiled, 
and with them Opin/ius, the head of the Numidian commission, and the 
real executioner of Caius Gracchus. 

In token of the earnestness with which the war was now to be carried 
on, Qu. Metellus, a stern and upright patrician of the old school, was 
elected consul for the African campaign. Among his lieutenants was 
Caius Marius, the son of a Latin farmer, who had risen from the ranks 
by his sterling ability. He won the hearts of the soldiers by voluntarily 
sharing all their toils and privations; and through their reports to friends 
at home, his praise was in every mouth. 

131 . The wild tribes of the desert flocked to the standard of Jugurtha, 
whom they hailed as their deliverer from Roman domination; and with 
his swarms of fleet horsemen, he was able either to dictate the battle-field, 
or to vanish out of sight at any moment, when the combat seemed to 
be going against him. The Romans gained one or two victories, but* no 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


301 


real advantage. An impression, doubtless false and unjust, sprang up at 
Rome, that the inaction of Metellus, like the reverses of his predecessors, 
was owing to a secret understanding with Jugurtha — or, at least, that he 
was prolonging the war to gratify his own love of power. 

Availing himself of this prejudice, Marius returned to Rome, and was 
elected consul for the year 107 B. C. Instead of having his province 
allotted by the Senate, he was appointed by the people to the command 
in Africa. His election was really a revolution which gave power in the 
state to military talent, rather than to great wealth or noble birth. His 
qujestor in this expedition was L. Cornelius Sulla, a young nobleman dis¬ 
tinguished chiefly hitherto by his unbounded licentiousness, but who, by 
energetic application to his duties, soon won the entire confidence and ap¬ 
probation of his commander. These two men stood, a few years later, in 
very different relations to each other, as alternate masters of the Roman 
world. 

132 . In spite of some daring adventures and the capture of several 
towns, the administration of Marius was not much more successful than 
that of Metellus. He continued in command as proconsul for the year 
106 B. C.; and during the second winter, the real victory was gained by 
Sulla, who passed through the enemy’s camp at great personal risk, and 
with consummate skill conducted a negotiation with King Bocchus, of 
Mauritania, for the surrender of Jugurtha. This notorious criminal was 
brought in chains to Rome, where, with his two sons, he adorned the 
triumph of Marius, Jan. 1, B. C. 104. A few days later, he perished with 
hunger in the lower dungeon of the Mamertine prison. A new peril now 
threatened Rome, and demanded unusual measures. In spite of a law to 
the contrary, Marius was reelected to the consulship, and continued to 
hold that office five successive years, B. C. 104-100. 

133 . The Cimbri, a mingled horde of Celtic and Germanic tribes, had 
been dislodged in some unknown manner from their seats beyond the 
Danube, and were pressing upon the Roman frontier. Before the close 
of the Jugurthine War, they had four times defeated consular armies in 
Gaul and the Alpine regions. In the last of these defeats, at Orange, on 
the Rhone (B. C. 105), an army of 80,000 men had been destroyed, and 
all Italy was filled with terror. A new army was now on foot, and Marius, 
with his legate, Sulla, and many other able officers, hastened into Gaul. 
The Cimbri had turned aside into Spain, where, however, they met a 
brave resistance, and were soon driven back across the Pyrenees. In 
western Gaul nothing was able to resist their rapid course of conquest, 
until they arrived at the Belgian territory beyond the Seine. They 
were joined by a kindred tribe of Teuto'nes from the shores of the 
Baltic, and by three cantons of Helve'tii from the mountains of Switzer¬ 
land. They now arranged a combined invasion of Italy, the Teutones to 


302 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


-enter that country from Roman Gaul by the western passes of the Alps, 
while the Cimbri were to traverse the eastern passes from Switzerland. 

134 . It was the object of the consuls to prevent their junction, and 
for this purpose Marius awaited the Teutones on the Rhone, near its con¬ 
fluence with the Is'ara, while Catulus marched into northern Italy to 
meet the Cimbri. One of the greatest victories ever won by Roman 
arms was gained by the former, near Aix, B. C. 102. Three successive 
days the barbarians had assaulted the Roman camp, when, despairing 
of success, they resolved to leave it behind and continue their march 
into Italy. 

Distrusting his new recruits, Marius would not suffer his men to be 
-drawn from their intrenchments until the entire host had departed; and 
so great were the numbers, and so cumbrous the baggage of the bar¬ 
barians, that they were six days in passing the Roman works. When 
they were gone, Marius broke up his camp and started in pursuit, still 
maintaining perfect order, and intrenching himself carefully every night. 
In the neighborhood of Aix he overtook the Teutones, and the pitched 
battle which was then fought ended in the complete destruction of the 
nation. The warriors who survived the combat put an end to their own 
lives; and their wives, preferring death to slavery, followed their ex¬ 
ample. 

135 . Meanwhile, the other division, less ably resisted, had advanced 
through the Brenner Pass and routed the army of Catulus near Trent. 
But the comfort and plenty of the Lombard plain were, for the moment, 
a better protection to Rome than the wisdom of her generals. The 
Cimbri went into winter-quarters, and Marius had time to recruit his 
army and hasten to join his colleague in the spring of 101 B. C. When 
the Cimbri ascended the valley of the Po, hoping to effect the proposed 
junction with their Teutonic comrades, they met, instead, the combined 
armies of Marius and Lutatius. The battle was fought at VercePlse, 
westward of Milan, July 30, 101 B. C. The barbarians were wholly de¬ 
feated, and either slaughtered or enslaved; 14,000 were left dead upon 
the battle-field, and 60,000 were transferred to the slave-markets of 
Rome. 

136 . Marius was received at Rome with a brilliant triumph, in which 
he was hailed as a third Romulus and a second Camillus, and his name 
in libations was coupled with those of the gods. The common people 
rejoiced scarcely more for the victory over the barbarians than for that 
ove* the government. The triumph of their chosen general, the farmer’s 
boy of'ArpPnum, seemed to them a triumph of the untitled and un¬ 
privileged masses over the rich and favored few. Marius was elected to 
his sixth consulate, and if he had been as great a statesman as general, 
the Republic might even then have been exchanged for a monarchy. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


303 


But he had no matured policy, and no skill in adapting means to ends. 
He allied himself with two unprincipled demagogues, Saturnisms and 
Glau'cia, to secure his election, and then abandoned them to the ven¬ 
geance of the Senate, when their crimes had become too bold for 
endurance. 

The government candidate for the consulship was assailed and beaten 
to death ; and the party which procured the murder, proclaiming Satur- 
ninus its chief, broke open the prison doors and gave freedom and arms 
to both prisoners and slaves. This armed rabble fought the guards of 
Marius in the very market-place of the city; but it was driven at length 
to the Capitol, cut off from water, and forced to surrender. Without 
waiting the forms of trial, some young nobles climbed to the roof of the 
building where the rioters were imprisoned, tore off the tiles, and stoned 
them to death. In this disgraceful manner perished four high officers 
of the Roman people: a praetor, a quaestor, and two tribunes. 

137 . The beautiful island of Sicily was a second time the scene of a 
servile war, B. C. 102-99. Its fertility and importance as a grain market 
to Rome had attracted speculators, who farmed their vast estates by 
means of multitudes of slaves. In the First Servile War (B. C. 134-132), 
200,000 rebels were in arms; the second taxed the best exertions of 
three successive consuls, and though it was ended, B. C. 99, in victory 
to Rome, the terror it had excited did not soon die away. The slaves 
not only outnumbered the ruling class, but surpassed it in strength, and 
even, in some rare instances, in military talent, lhey were treated with 
such inhuman cruelty, that they never lacked a motive for revolt, and 
thus the rural districts were always liable to outbreaks when the gov¬ 
erning force was removed. 

The Roman slave-code, it may be hoped, has never been equaled in 
barbarity by that of any civilized state. The slave was nothing in 
law; his master might torture or kill him with no other punishment 
than the loss of his property; and when, after such a victory as that of 
Vercellte, captives could be bought, as we are told, for less than a dollar 
a head, that motive could have had no weight against the passion of 
revenge. Happily, society is sometimes better than its laws. Household 
servants commonly enjoyed the confidence and affection of their masters; 
physicians and teachers were usually Greek slaves, and theii learning 
and talents caused them to be respected in spite of the misfortune of 
their condition. 

BECAPITULATIOU. 

Though plebeians enjoy political equality, the poor suffer tor want of land 
and employment. Tiberius Gracchus passes the Agrarian laws, but becomes a 
martyr to his zeal for reform. Scipio iEmilianus, trying to moderate the Agra¬ 
rian movement, is also murdered. Caius Gracchus founds colonies in Italy and 


304 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


abroad; provides for the poor by a public distribution of grain; gives to the rich 
plebeians the collection of provincial revenues, and thus creates a class of great 
bankers and publicans. He is opposed with armed violence and slain, B. C. 121, 
The crimes of Jugurtha occasion the Numidian war, B. C. 111-106. Metellus is> 
succeeded in command by Marius, who becomes consul, B. C. 107. Jugurtha is 
captured by the address of Sulla. Marius defeats the Teutones in a great battle 
near Aix, B. C. 102; and the Cimbri, the next year, at Vercellse. A sedition at 
Rome is followed by the death of several magistrates. Sicily is twice devastated 
by servile insurrections, B. C. 134-132, and B. C. 102-99. 


The Social War. 

138 . Meanwhile, Rome was shaken by the efforts and death of another 
reformer, M. Livius Drusus, son of the opponent of Gracchus. As a 
noble, he was filled with shame for the corruptions of his order, and 
sought to revive the safest and best of the laws of the Gracchi, by 
giving the franchise to all Italians, and by taking the judicial power 
from the knights, who had greatly abused it. He was murdered at his 
own door by an unknown assassin, B. C. 91, and both of his laws re¬ 
pealed. The allies in the south and center of Italy, disappointed in all 
their hopes by the death of their champion, now flew to arms. Eight 
nations, the Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni, Vestini, Picenti'ni, Samnites, 
ApiPli, and Lucani, formed a federal republic under the name of Italia , 
chose two consuls, and fixed their capital at Corfin / ium, in the Apen¬ 
nines. 

The first movements in the “Social War” were disastrous to Rome. 
L. Ctesar, the consul, Perper'na, his legate, and Postuhnius, a praetor, 
were defeated. A consular army under Caepio was destroyed; Campania 
was overrun, and the northern Italians were almost ready to join the 
league. But a late concession saved Rome. The coveted rights of citi¬ 
zenship were conferred on all who had taken no part in the war, and 
on all who would now withdraw from it. The confederate ranks were 
thus divided; and, at length, even the Samnites and Lucanians, who 
were the last to submit, were won by a promise of all that they had 
asked. 

139 . The slow and cautious conduct of Marius in this war had been 
eclipsed by the brilliant activity of Sulla, who was now consul; and the 
Senate, choosing to consider the old general unequal to the hardships 
o( a campaign, conferred the command against Mithridates upon the 
young patrician officer. The jealousy which had long ago supplanted 
the ancient confidence between Marius and Sulla, now broke out into 
violent opposition. To defeat his rival, Marius persuaded Rufus, the 
tribune, to propose a law for distributing the newly enfranchised Italians 
among all the tribes. The old citizens would thus be greatly outnum¬ 
bered, and the appointment of Sulla reversed, for all the new voters 



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HISTORY OF ROME. 


305 


regarded Marius as their friend and benefactor. The consuls interfered, 
but Marius and his ally occupied the Forum with an armed force, com¬ 
pelled the consuls to withdraw their interdict, passed the law by intim¬ 
idation, and easily obtained a vote of the tribes appointing Marius to 
the command of the Pontic War. 

140. This brutal interference with the forms of law was naturally met 
by an opposing force. The military tribunes sent by Marius to take 
command, in his name, of the army at Nola, were stoned to death by 
the soldiers of Sulla, who instantly marched upon Rome at the head of 
six legions. The city was unprepared for resistance; Sulla became its 
master, and Marius, with his son and partisans, fled. He wandered, a 
fugitive and outlaw, along the coast of southern Italy; now half starved 
in a wood, now buried all night to his chin in a swamp; again indebted 
for a few hours’ sleep to the charity of a ship-master or to a peasant, who 
refused the reward offered by Sulla for the head of the outlaw, and en¬ 
abled him to elude his pursuers. 

At Mintur'nse he was sheltered by a woman to whom he had formerly 
rendered some kindness; but the officers of the town resolved to comply 
with the orders of the government at Rome, and with difficulty prevailed 
upon a Gallic or Cimbrian soldier to undertake the work of despatching 
him. But no sooner had the barbarian entered the room where the old 
general, unarmed and defenseless, lay upon a bed, than his courage failed, 
his drawn sword fell from his hand, and he rushed from the house, ex¬ 
claiming, “I can not kill Caius Marius!” 

141. The people of Minturnse now took more generous counsel, and 
resolved not to destroy the deliverer of Italy. They provided him with a 
ship, and conducted him with good wishes to the sea, where he embarked 
for Africa. Here, too, he was warned by the governor to leave the country, 
or be treated as an enemy of Rome. But a revolution had by this time 
taken place in Rome itself, which favored the return of Marius. Cinna, 
one of the new consuls, was of the Marian party, and wished to enforce 
the laws of Rufus. The aristocrats armed, under the command of the 
other consul, Octavius, and a battle was fought in the Forum, in which 
Cinna was defeated and expelled from the city. Like Sulla, he appealed 
to the army; and as the army was now composed of Italians, who could 
not but favor that party which promised them supreme power in the 
Roman elections, the tide was turned against the aristocrats. 

Marius returned, seized upon Ostia and other ports on the Latin coast, 
captured the corn ships, and thus starved Rome into surrender. This 
time the captured city was given up to a reign of terror. As Marius 
walked through the streets, his guards stabbed all persons whom he did 
not salute. Fresh lists were made out every day of those whom he 
either feared or hated, as victims for the dagger. Marius and Cinna 
A. IL—20. 


306 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


declared themselves consuls for B. C. 86, in contempt of the usual form 
of election. But the unrelenting master of Rome did not long enjoy his 
seventh consulship, which he had all his life superstitiously expected, and 
now so unscrupulously obtained. He died on the eighteenth day of his 
magistracy, and in the seventy'■first year of his age. 

142. Sulla had brought the Mithridatic War to a victorious con¬ 
clusion, having conducted five difficult and costly campaigns at his o\nii 
expense, and recovered for Rome the revolted territories of Greece, Mace¬ 
donia, and Asia Minor. But he never forgot that the Republic which he 
was serving had declared him a public enemy, confiscated his wealth, 
and murdered his best friends for their adherence to him. If his ven¬ 
geance was delayed, it was only the more bitter and effectual. He now 
returned with a powerful army devotedly attached to his person, and 
laden with treasure collected from the conquered cities of Asia. 

To disarm the enmity of the Italians, who formed the most valuable 
part of his opponents’ forces, he proclaimed that he would not interfere 
with the rights of any citizen, old or new. He suffered no injury to be 
done to either the towns or fields of the Italians, and he made separate 
treaties with many of their cities, by which he guaranteed their full 
enjoyment of Roman privileges so long as they should favor his interests. 
The Samnites alone held out against Sulla, and in concert with the 
Marian party renewed their old hostilities. Cinna was murdered by his 
own troops, on his way to meet Sulla in Dalmatia. 

143. Landing at Brundis'ium, Sulla marched without opposition through 
Calabria, Apulia, and Campania; defeated one consul near Capua, and won 
over the entire army of the other by means of emissaries well supplied 
with gold. He was reinforced by three legions, under Cneius Pompey, 
and by the adherence of many distinguished citizens, among whom. were 
Metellus Pius, Crassus, and Lucullus. He was still outnumbered by the 
Marians, who, in 82 B. C., brought into the field an army of 200,000 men, 
under the two consuls Papir'ius Carbo and the younger Marius. The 
latter was defeated, however, with great loss at SacripoPtus, and took 
refuge in Praeneste, where he had deposited his military chest, enriched 
by the treasures of the Capitoline temples. This town was blockaded, 
while Sulla marched upon Rome. Marius had secretly ordered his par¬ 
tisans in the city to put to death the most illustrious of the Cornelian 
faction; and thus perished the pontifex maximus, and many others whose 
sacred office or exalted character would, in more virtuous times, have 
made them secure from violence. 

144. The army of Samnites and Lucanians, by the request of Marius, 
moved toward Rome, TelesPnus, their leader, declaring that he would 
raze the city to the ground. A furious battle was fought near the Col- 
line Gate, in which Sulla was victorious; and, with a cold-blooded 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


307 


ferocity too common in those fearful times, ordered 6,000 prisoners to be 
cut to pieces in the Campus Martius. Sulla was now master of Rome 
and of Italy, and his vengeance had begun. A “proscription list” of 
his enemies was exhibited in the Forum, and a reward of two talents 
was offered to all who would kill these outlawed persons, or even show 
the place of their concealment. As usual, private hatred and even the 
meanest avarice found indulgence under the name of political enmity. 
Any friend of Sulla was permitted to add names to the list; and as the 
property of the proscribed usually went to his accuser, the possession of 
a house, a field, or even a piece of silver plate was often enough to 
mark a man as a public enemy. 

Sulla was appointed dictator, with unlimited power to “ restore order 
to the Republic.” The constitutional changes which he made, were de¬ 
signed to re-instate the Senate and nobles in the preeminence which they 
had enjoyed in the earliest years after the expulsion of the kings. He 
limited the sway of the tribunes of the people, and lowered the dignity of 
their office by prohibiting those who had held it from becoming consuls. 
Though himself a man of dissolute morals, Sulla clearly saw that the 
worst miseries of the Roman people proceeded from their own corruption, 
and he tried to check luxury and crime by the most stringent enactments. 
But the attempt was hopeless; the character of the nation was so far de¬ 
graded that no rank or class was fit to rule, and its subjection to the will 
of a tyrant had become a necessity. 

145. Sulla increased the number of the Senate by 300 new members 
chosen from the knights, all, of course, adherents of his own. He gained, 
also, a sort of body-guard, by giving the rights of citizenship to 10,000 
slaves of those whom he had proscribed. These freedmen all received 
his own clan-name, Cornelius, and became his clients. He rewarded his 
veterans with the confiscated lands of the Marian party, thus replacing 
honest and industrious farmers with too often lawless and thriftless mil¬ 
itary communities. When Sulla had held the dictatorship three years, 
he surprised the world by suddenly resigning it, and retiring to his 
country-seat at Pute'oli. Here he devoted his days to the amusements 
of literature, mingled, unhappily, with less ennobling pleasures. He died 
B. C. 78, the year following his abdication. Two days before his death 
he completed the history of his own life and times, in twenty-two 
volumes, in which he recorded the prediction of a Chaldean sooth¬ 
sayer, that he should die, after a happy life, at the very height of his 
prosperity. 

146. A remnant of the Marian faction still held out in the west 
of Spain. Sertorius had been sent to command that province, chiefly 
because, as the most honest and keen-sighted of the Marians, he was 
troublesome to his brother officers. During the proscription by Sulla, 


308 


AS Cl ENT HISTORY. 


he was joined by many exiles, who aided him in drilling the native 
troops. Though driven for a time into Africa by the proconsul An'nius, 
he returned, upon the invitation of the Lusitanians, with a Libyan and 
Moorish army, which defeated the fleet of Sulla in the Straits of Gib¬ 
raltar, and his land forces near the Guadalquivir. All Roman Spain 
became subject to Sertorius. With the aid of Cilician pirates, he cap¬ 
tured the islands of Ivi'ca and Formente / ra. He formed a government, 
in which the senate was composed only of Romans; but he distinguished 
'the native Spaniards by many marks of favor, and won their confidence 
not only by his brilliant genius, but by his perfect justice in the admin¬ 
istration of their affairs. 

147. Metellus, Sulla’s colleague in the consulship, who commanded 
his armies in Spain, was completely baffled by the unwearied activity 
and superior knowledge of the country displayed by Sertorius. At length 
Cneius Pompey, who had already, in his thirtieth year, gained the title 
of Great, and the honor of a triumph for his victories over the allies of 
the Marians in Africa, was sent into Spain with the title of proconsul, 
to share the command with Metellus. His military skill far surpassed 
that of his predecessors, but for five years the war was still dragged out 
with more loss and vexation than success. 

At last, Sertorius was murdered by one of his own officers, a man of 
high birth, who envied the ascendency of genius and integrity, and 
hoped by removing his general to open the way to his own advancement. 
He was totally defeated and captured by Pompey in the first battle which 
he fought as commander-in-chief; and though he tried to save his life 
by giving up the papers of Sertorius, and thus betraying the secrets of 
his party in Rome, he was ordered to instant execution, B. C. 72. • 

148. The Spanish war was now ended, but a nearer and greater danger 
threatened Rome. The pride and luxury fed by foreign conquest had 
brought no increase of refinement to the common people; and their 
favorite amusement for festal days was to see the bravest captives, taken 
in war and trained for the purpose, slaughter each other in the amphi¬ 
theater. The sediles, who provided the public shows, vied . with each 
other in the numbers and training of the gladiators, whom they either 
bought or hired from their owners for exhibition. Among the unhappy 
men who were under training in the school at Capua, was a Thracian 
peasant named Spar'tacus. His soul revolted against the beastly fate to 
which he was doomed, and he communicated his spirit to seventy of his 
comrades. Forcibly breaking bounds, they passed out at the gates of 
Capua, seized upon the road some wagon-loads of gladiators’ weapons, and 
took refuge in an extinct crater of Vesuvius. They defeated 3,000 soldiers 
who besieged them, and armed themselves more effectively with the spoils 
of the slain. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


309 


Spartacus proclaimed freedom to all slaves who would join him. The 
half-savage herdsmen of the Bruttian and Lucanian mountains sprang to 
arms at his call, and the number of insurgents quickly rose to 40,000. 
They defeated two legions under the prcetor Varinius, stormed and plun¬ 
dered Tliurii and Metapon'tum, Nola and Nuce / ria, and many other 
towns of southern Italy. In the second year their forces were increased 
to 100,000 men, and they defeated successively two consuls, two praetors, 
and the governor of Cisalpine Gaul. All Italy, from the Alps to the 
Straits of Messana, quaked at the name of Spartacus, as it had done, more 
than a hundred years before, at that of Hannibal; but it only proved the 
decay of Roman character, that a mere bandit chief could accomplish what 
had once taxed the genius of the greatest general whom the world had yet 
produced. 

149. Spartacus, however, saw clearly that in the end the organized 
power and resources of Rome must be superior to his own, and he only 
proposed to his followers to fight their way to and beyond the Alps, and 
then disperse to their homes ; but the insurgents, spoiled with success, re¬ 
fused to leave Italy, and turned again to the south. Their winter-quarters, 
near Tliurii, were like an immense fair crowded with the plunder of the 
whole peninsula, which merchants from far and near assembled to buy. 
Spartacus refused gold or silver, and took in exchange only iron or brass, 
which he converted into weapons of war by means of foundries established 
in his camp. In the panic which pervaded Rome, no one was willing to 
offer himself for the office of praetor. At length, Licinius Crassus accepted 
the appointment, and led eight legions into the field. 

150. Spartacus was twice defeated, and driven to the southern point of 
Bruttium. Thence he tried to escape into Sicily, where the servile war 
was still smoldering and ready to be rekindled, and where, by holding 
the grain fields, he could soon have raised a bread-riot among the hungry 
mob of Rome. But the Cilician pirates, who had engaged to transport 
him, proved treacherous; and his attempt to convey his army across the 
straits on rafts and wicker boats was ineffectual. He then, in despair, 
broke the lines of Crassus, and once more threw Rome into great con¬ 
sternation. 

But the same jealousies which had scattered the forces of Greeks and 
Romans, doomed the barbarians, also, to destruction. Thirty thousand 
Gauls separated themselves from Spartacus and his Thracians, and were 
totally destroyed near Crotona. The final encounter took place on the 
head-waters of the Silarus. Spartacus fell desperately fighting, and his 
army was destroyed. Only 5,000 of his men made their way to the north 
of Italy, where they were met by Pompey on his return from Spain, and 
all put to the sword. The 6,000 prisoners taken by Crassus were crucified 
along the Appian Way. 


310 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


151. The two triumphant generals, Pompey and Crassus, demanded the 
consulship as their reward. To attain this, it was needful to set aside 
some of the Sullsean laws, for Pompey had neither reached the required 
age nor passed through the preliminary offices. But the deliverers of Rome 
could not ask in vain. On Dec. 31, B. C. 71, Pompey triumphed a second 
time for his victories in Spain; the next day, Jan. 1, B. C. 70, he entered 
on the duties of his consulship with Licinius Crassus. Though formerly 
a chief instrument of the oligarchy under Sulla, Pompey now attached 
himself to the democratic party, more especially to the wealthy middle 
class. He restored to the tribunes of the people the power which Sulla 
had taken away, and caused judges to be chosen no longer exclusively 
from the Senate, but in equal proportions from the Senate, the knights, 
and the tribunes of the treasury — a class of moneyed men who collected 
and paid the revenues due to the soldiers. 

Reform in the government of the provinces was a rallying cry of the 
new party, and the year of Pompey’s consulate was marked by the pros¬ 
ecution of Verres, ex-prretor of Syracuse, for his shameless robbery of 
the province of Sicily. The impeachment was conducted by Marcus 
Tullius Cicero, the great lawyer and orator, whose wonderful learning 
and eloquence had already made him illustrious. Cicero was allowed 
one hund.^d and ten days to collect evidence of Verres’s guilt. In less 
than half the time he returned from Sicily, followed by a long train of 
witnesses, whose fortunes had been ruined by the fraud and inhumanity 
of the praetor. Verres himself had been heard to boast that he had 
amassed wealth enough to support a life-time of luxury, even if he should 
spend two-thirds of his ill-gotten gains in hushing inquiry or in buying 
a pardon; and the unhappy provincials plainly declared that, if he were 
acquitted, they would petition the Senate to repeal all the laws against 
official injustice, that in future their governors might, at least, only 
plunder to enrich themselves, and not to bribe their judges. But Verres 
was condemned, and not even awaiting his sentence, escaped with his 
treasures to Massilia. 

152. At the end of his consulship, Pompey did not accept a province,, 
but remained quietly in Rome, taking no part in public affairs. An in¬ 
creasing danger soon demanded the exercise of his talents. Since the 
destruction of the naval power of Carthage, Syria, and Egypt, the pirates 
of the Cilician coast had cruised unchecked throughout the Mediterra¬ 
nean, and had even been encouraged by Mithridates and Sertorius in 
their enmity against Rome. They captured the corn-ships, plundered 
the wealthiest cities, and even attacked Roman dignity in its most im¬ 
posing form, by carrying off great magistrates, with their trains of attend¬ 
ants, from the Appian Way. 

The crisis demanded extraordinary measures, and, in B. C. 67, Pompey 


HISTORY OF ROME . 


311 


was intrusted with absolute and irresponsible control of the Mediterra¬ 
nean, with a district extending fifty miles inland from its coasts, and 
with unlimited command of ships, money, and men. The price of pro¬ 
visions fell instantly upon his appointment, showing the confidence which 
his great ability had inspired. In forty days he had swept the western 
sea, and restored the broken communication between Italy, Africa, and 
Spain. Then sailing from Brundisium, he cleared the sea to the east¬ 
ward, hunting the corsairs from all their inlets by means of the several 
squadrons under his fifteen lieutenants, and winning many to voluntary 
submission by his merciful treatment of the prisoners who fell into his 
hands. 

The final battle took place near the Cilician coast, above which, on 
the heights of Mount Taurus, the pirates had placed their families and 
their plunder. They were defeated ; 10,000 men were slain, their arsenals, 
magazines, and 1,300 vessels destroyed, while 400 ships and 20,000 pris¬ 
oners were taken. Pompey showed no less wisdom in disposing of his 
captives than energy in defeating them. They were settled in isolated 
towns, and provided with honest employment; and as a result of the 
short and decisive conflict of three months, the Mediterranean remained 
safe and open to peaceful traffic for many years. 

153. The Mithridatic War, though conducted with great ability by 
Lucullus, had become disastrous to the Romans; and a new law, pro¬ 
posed by ManiPius, now extended Pompey’s jurisdiction over all the 
forces in Asia, with power to make war, peace, or alliance with the 
several kings at his own discretion. Within a year, B. C. 66, he received 
the submission of the king of Armenia, and drove Mithridates beyond 
the Caucasus. He deposed the last of the Seleucidse, and placed Syria, 
as well as Pontus and Bithynia, under provincial management. 

As centers of Roman or Greek civilization, he founded thirty-nine new 
cities, beside rebuilding or reviving many old ones. Among the former 
was Nicop'olis— “ the city of victory’’ — which he caused to be built as 
a home for his veteran soldiers, on the site of the decisive overthrow of 
Mithridates. Pie subdued Phoenicia and Palestine, B. C. 63, captured 
the temple-fortress of Jerusalem by a siege of three months, and estab¬ 
lished Hyrcanus as “high priest and ruler of the people.” The next 
year he returned to Italy in a long triumphal procession. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Death of Drusus is followed by the Social War, in the victorious ending of 
which Sulla gains great glory. Marius interferes by violence with his appoint¬ 
ment to command in the war against Pontus. Sulla overpowers the city by his 
legions, and Marius becomes an exile. After Sulla’s departure he i etui ns, cap¬ 
tures Rome, and massacres his opponents, but dies soon after the beginning ol 
his seventh consulship. Sulla, returning triumphant from the East, defeats the 
new consuls and their allies, and by his proscriptions makes havoc with life 


312 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


and property at Rome. As dictator, he restores the aristocratic government of 
the early Republic. He dies in retirement, B. C. 78. Sertorius, ten years sovereign 
in Spain, is opposed by Pompey, and murdered, B. C. 72. War of the gladiators, 
under Spartacus, fills all Italy with terror, B. C. 73-71. It is ended by Crassus, 
who, with Pompey the Great, becomes consul for B. C. 70. Cicero impeaches 
Verres for extortion in Sicily. Pompey, intrusted with extraordinary powers by 
the Gabinian law, destroys the Cilician pirates; then completes the Pontic War, 
and establishes Roman dominion in western Asia. 


Conquests of Julius Caesar. 

154. Rome, meanwhile, had narrowly escaped ruin from the iniquitous 
schemes of one of her own nobles. L. Sergius CatilRna, a man of 
ancient family, but worthless character and ruined fortunes, seized the 
time when all the troops were absent from Italy, to plot with other 
nobles, as wicked and turbulent as himself, for the overthrow of the 
government. The new consuls were to be murdered on the day of their 
inauguration. Catiline and Autro'nius were to take the supreme com¬ 
mand in Italy, and Piso was to lead an army into Spain. The first plot 
failed through the imprudence of its leader; but a second, of still bolder 
and more comprehensive character, was formed. Eleven senators were 
drawn into the conspiracy; magazines of arms were formed, and troops 
levied in various parts of the peninsula. The wide-spread discontent of 
the people with the existing government aided the success of the move¬ 
ment; and, in the end, slaves, gladiators, and even criminals from the 
common prisons, were to be liberated and armed. 

The secret was kept by a vast number of persons for eighteen months, 
but the main features of the plot were at length made known to Cicero, 
then consul, and by his vigilance and prudence it was completely foiled. 
He confronted Catiline in the Senate — where the arch conspirator had 
the boldness to take his usual place — with an oration, in which he laid 
open with unsparing vehemence the minutest circumstances of the plot. 
The convicted ringleader fled from Rome in the night, and placed him¬ 
self at the head of his two legions, hoping yet to strike an effective blow 
before the levies ordered by the Senate could be fit for service. His 
chief accomplices were seized and strangled in prison, by order of the 
Senate, while he himself was followed and defeated in Etruria by the 
proconsul Antonius. The battle was decisive. Catiline fell fighting far 
in advance of his troops, and 3,000 of his followers perished with him. 
No free Roman was taken alive. B. C. 62. 

155. Though this daring conspiracy was thus happily crushed, the 
weakness and disorder of society alarmed the best and wisest citizens. 
It was feared that some man of commanding talent might yet succeed 
where Catiline had failed, and overthrow the liberties of Rome. Pompey, 
now returning with his victorious legions from the East, was the imme- 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


313 


diate object of dread to the Senate and aristocratic party. But he quieted 
apprehension by disbanding his army as soon as he touched the soil of 
Italy, and proceeded slowly to Rome accompanied by only a few friends. 
They could not refuse his claim to a triumph, and from the number and 
extent of his victories, this pageant was the most imposing that Rome 
had ever seen. Although there was no army to lengthen the procession, 
it occupied two days in passing through the city. The inscriptions 
enumerated 22 kings and 12,000,000 of people as conquered; 800 ships, 
nearly 900 towns, and 1,000 fortresses taken; and the Roman revenues 
nearly doubled. 

By an unusual act of clemency, Pompey spared the lives of all his 
captives, and dismissed to their homes all except Aristobulus, of Judaea, 
and the young Tigranes, of Armenia, who were detained lest they should 
stir up revolts in their respective countries. But though the aristocrats 
of the Senate had taken part in the public honors paid to Pompey, they 
could not forget that his appointment in the East had been in defiance 
of their opposition. His demands of allotments of land to his veterans, 
and for himself a second consulship and the ratification of his official 
acts, were refused; and Pompey, to redeem his pledges to his soldiers, 
now made an alliance with an abler man, and one far more dangerous 
to the old order of things — if the Senate could but have foreseen it — 
than himself. B. C. 60. 

156. Caius Julius Caesar had been proscribed in his eighteenth year, 
because he had refused to put away his young wife, Cornelia, the daughter 
of Cinna, at the command of Sulla. He was for a time a fugitive in 
danger of death, but his friends at length, with great difficulty, procured 
his pardon from the dictator, on the plea of his youth and insignificance. 
Sulla was more discerning; he remarked, “That boy will some day be 
the ruin of the aristocracy, for there are many Marii in him.” 

Upon the death of his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, Caesar defied 
the law which had pronounced her husband an enemy of the state, by 
causing his waxen image to be carried in the funeral procession. It was 
welcomed by the people with loud acclamations. In his aedileship, thiee 
years later — which, in the magnificence of the games celebrated, and the 
buildings erected at his own expense, surpassed all that had preceded 
it — Caesar ventured upon a bolder step. He replaced in the Capitol, 
during one night, the statues of Marius, and the representations of his 
victories in Africa and Gaul, which had been removed by bulla. "VV hen 
morning dawned, the common people and the veterans of Marius wept 
and shouted for joy at the re-appearance of the well-known features, 
and greeted Caesar with rapturous applause. Though formally accused 
in the Senate of violating a law, he could not be condemned against 
the voice of the people. 


314 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


157. Dignities and honors followed in rapid succession. He became 
pontifex maximus in 63 B. C.; praetor, in 62.; and at the end of his 
praetorship he obtained the government of Farther Spain. In this first 
military command he acquired not only wealth for himself and his 
soldiers, but great reputation by subduing the Lusitanian mountaineers. 
On his return, he desired both a triumph and the consulship; but he 
could not obtain the one it he entered the city before it was decreed, 
nor the other without being personally present at the approaching elec¬ 
tion ; so he abandoned the showy for the solid advantage, and was duly 
chosen consul, with Bib'ulus, a tool of the Senate, for his colleague. 

158. He now managed to detach Pompey from the senatorial party, 
and form with him and Crassus a triumvirate, which, though only a secret 
agreement, not a public magistracy, ruled the Roman world for several 
years. The power of Crassus was due to his enormous wealth ; that of 
Pompey, to his great military services; and that of Caesar, to his un¬ 
equaled genius and unbounded popularity. Their combined influence 
was soon felt in the official acts of Caesar. He brought forward an 
Agrarian law for dividing the rich public lands of Campania among the 
poorest citizens. It was passed against the violent opposition of Bibulus 
and all the aristocratic party; a commission of twenty, with Pompey 
and Crassus at its head, was appointed to divide the lands, and the 
veterans thus obtained most of their claims. 

The defeated consul, who had declared that he would rather die than 
yield, now shut himself up in his house, and never re-appeared in public 
until his year of office had expired. Caesar obtained a ratification of all 
Pompey’s acts in Asia, and, at the same time, attached the equites to his 
party, by giving them more favorable terms’ in farming the provincial 
revenues. At the close of his consulship he obtained the government 
of Illyrieum and Gaul, on both sides of the Alps, for a term of five years, 
with a general commission to “protect the friends and allies of the 
Roman people.” 

159. The religious and national bond between the many Celtic tribes 
which inhabited the ancient territories of Britain, Belgium, France, Swit¬ 
zerland, and a part of Spain, was strong enough to unite them, now and 
then, in resistance to their common enemies, the Germans on the north 
and the Romans on the south, but not strong enough to prevent rivalries 
among themselves, which often gave the foreign power room to interfere 
in their affairs. The Roman province, founded B. C. 121, now extended 
northward along the Rhone as far as Geneva; and a great emigration of 
Germans had occupied territories west of the Rhine, from the neighborhood 
of the modern Strasbourg to the German Ocean. 

160. During his first summer in Gaul, Caesar, by the extraordinary swift¬ 
ness and decision of his movements, subdued two nations and established 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


315 


Roman supremacy in the center of the country. The Helvetii, who lived 
between Lake Geneva and the Jura, finding themselves in too narrow 
quarters, had resolved to emigrate and conquer new habitations to the 
westward. They burned their twelve towns and four hundred villages, 
and assembled at Geneva to the number of 368,000 persons, men, women, 
and children, intending to pass through the Roman province into western 
Gaul. Csesar prevented this move by a wall nineteen miles in length, 
which he extended along the left bank of the Rhone; and bringing up 
three legions from Italy, he followed the Helvetians along their second 
route, and defeated them near Bibrac'te. The remnant of the nation — 
less than one-third of the number on their muster-rolls when the migration 
began — were ordered back to their native hills. 

The Seq'uani, a Celtic tribe north of the Helvetii, had called in Ario- 
vis / tus, the most powerful of the German chiefs, against their rivals the 
iEdui, who were styled allies and kinsmen of the Romans. Having sub¬ 
dued the iEdui, Ariovistus turned upon his late allies, and demanded two- 
thirds of their lands in payment for his services. All the Gauls begged 
aid of Csesar, who met the German prince near the Rhine, in what is now 
Alsace. So great was the fame of Ariovistus and his gigantic barbarians, 
who for fourteen years had not slept under a roof, that the Roman soldiers 
were afraid to fight; and though shamed out of their cowardice by the 
stirring appeal of their general, every man made his will before going into 
battle. The result of the combat was the complete destruction of the Ger¬ 
man host, only Ariovistus and a few followers escaping across the Rhine. 

161. The second year, Caesar conquered the Belgians north of the Seine, 
and the Senate decreed a public thanksgiving of fifteen days for the subju¬ 
gation of Gaul. His lieutenant, Decimus Brutus, fought the first naval 
battle on the Atlantic, with the high-built sailing vessels of the Celts. 
The maritime tribes revolting the following winter, were subdued; and 
but for a few brief rebellions, the territories of France and Belgium re¬ 
mained under Roman dominion. Csesar repaired each winter to his 
province of Cisalpine Gaul, to watch affairs in Italy. Jn 56 B. C., he 
had to reconcile Pompey with Crassus, and re-arrange, in his camp at 
Luca, the affairs of the triumvirate. 

It was agreed that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls the next year, 
and that, after their term had expired, the former should govern Spain, 
and the latter Asia, while the proconsular government of Csesar in Gaul 
should be prolonged to a second term of'five years. In choosing the 
most arduous and least lucrative province for himself, Csesar wished to 
begin the execution of his great scheme for civilizing the West, and organ¬ 
izing the whole Roman dominion into one compact state. The revolution 
begun by the Gracchi was not yet completed, and it was easy to see that 
the strife of parties must come again to the sword, as it had in the time 


316 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


of Marius and Sulla. In sucli a case, Caesar desired to be near Italy, and 
to have an army trained to perfect discipline and devotion to himself. 

162. In the fourth year, B. C. 55, he threw a bridge across the Rhine 
and invaded Germany. Late in the autumn, he made a reconnoitering 
expedition to Britain, and received hostages from the tribes. This time 
the Senate decreed twenty days’ thanksgiving, though Cato stoutly insisted 
that Caesar ought, rather, to be given up to the vengeance of the barbarians, 
to avert the anger of the gods for his having seized the German embassa¬ 
dors. The next year, B. C. 54, Caesar again invaded Britain, with five 
legions. Notwithstanding the brave resistance of a native chief, Cas'sive- 
lauhius, he penetrated north of the Thames, took hostages, and imposed 
tribute; but he left no military posts to hold the island in subjection. 

A formidable revolt of the Gauls, the following winter, destroyed one 
of the six divisions of the Roman army, and imperiled another, commanded 
by Quintus Cicero, brother of the orator. Caesar came to its relief, defeated 
60,000 of the enemy, and restored quietness to the north. The Germans 
having aided in this revolt, he again crossed the Rhine near Coblentz, in 
the summer of 53 B. C. He fought no battles, for the people took refuge 
among their wooded hills; but the invasion served, as before, to make an 
imposing display of Roman power. 

163. The following year, Gaul was every-where in a blaze of revolt, and 
the campaign was the most difficult and brilliant of all Caesar’s operations. 
VePcinget'orix, king of the Arver'ni, and the ablest of the Gallic chief¬ 
tains, stirred up all the tribes, and nearly wrested the country from Roman 
control. While Caesar was besieging him in Alexia, a Gallic army of more 
than a quarter of a million of men encamped around the Romans and be¬ 
sieged them in turn. But the genius of the proconsul surmounted even 
this crisis. He kept down all attempts at sortie, while he defeated the 
outer army; then forced the town to surrender, and captured Vercingetorix 
himself. Six years later, the Gallic chief adorned the triumph of Caesar, 
and was then executed in the Mamertine prison at the foot of the Capitol. 
The Gauls now saw that resistance was hopeless. The firm and skillful 
management of Caesar in pacifying the country and organizing the Roman 
rule, completed the work that his brilliant victories had prepared; and by 
the year 50 B. C., Gaul was at peace. 

164. Meanwhile, Crassus, fearing that his colleagues would reap all the 
warlike glory of the league, undertook, after plundering the temples of the 
East, to make war against Parthia — a war unprovoked by the enemy, un¬ 
authorized by the Senate, and unwarranted by his own abilities. Contrary 
to advice, he plunged into the hot and sandy desert east of the Euphrates, 
lost the greater part of his army in a battle near Carrhte (the Haran of 
Abraham), and was himself slain, soon after, by the treachery of the Par¬ 
thian general, B. C. 53. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


317 


Pompey, now sole consul, no longer pretended any friendship for Caesar. 
The conqueror of Mithridates and the Cilician pirates did not fancy that 
he could be eclipsed by any man; and the relationship between them was 
lately dissolved by the death of Julia, the daughter of Caesar, who had been 
the wife of Pompey. The enemies of the former obtained a decree of the 
Senate requiring him to surrender his proconsular power, and return to 
Rome before becoming candidate for a second consulship. Cato had de¬ 
clared that he would prosecute Caesar for capital offenses as soon as he 
should resign his command. 

It could hardly have been expected that the governor of Gaul would quit 
his devoted legions, and all the treasures of the conquered province, to place 
himself unarmed at the mercy of his enemies. Such virtue had been known 
in the days of Curtins, but self-surrender for the public good had ceased 
to be fashionable at Rome. Moreover, Caesar may well have doubted 
whether the sacrifice of his life would promote the public interests. The 
Romans required a master; and his own plans for building up a great 
empire from the scattered fragments of provinces, by extending equal 
rights to all the conquered peoples, were doubtless the most enlarged and 
beneficent that had yet been formed. He believed that the great interests 
of Rome were consistent with his own. 

165. His enemies lost no opportunity to deprive him of resources. 
Under pretext of a war with Parthia, the two former colleagues of Crassus 
were required to furnish each one legion to be sent to Asia. Pompey had 
formerly lent a legion to Csesar, and now demanded its return. Csesar dis¬ 
missed the two legions, giving to each man his share of the treasure which 
was to be distributed at his approaching triumph. He wrote at the same 
time to the Senate, offering to resign his command if Pompey would do 
the same, but not otherwise. • The two legions were kept in Italy. After 
a violent debate, it was enacted that Csesar should, without conditions,, 
disband his army on a certain day, under penalty of being declared an 
enemy of the state. The tribunes, Antonius and Cassius, vetoed the 
motion, but their veto was set aside; and believing their lives in danger, 
they fled to Caesar’s camp at Raven'na. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Catiline’s deep-laid conspiracy is defeated by Cicero, and its leader slain in 
battle. Pompey disbands bis army and triumphs for his conquests in Asia. He 
forms with Caesar, now consul, and Crassus, the first triumvirate. The next 
year, B. C. 58, Caesar, as proconsul, assumes the command in Gaul; subdues the 
Helvetii and the Germans, under Ariovistus, in one campaign; afterward con¬ 
quers the Belgae; twice bridges the Rhine and ravages Germany; twice invades 
Britain; suppresses revolts in Gaul, and organizes the whole country into a 
peaceful and permanent part of the Roman dominion. Crassus, in Asia, is over¬ 
whelmingly defeated, with the loss of his army and his life, B. C. 53. Pompey 
breaks with Csesar, and becomes the champion of the Senate. 


318 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


CiESAR Master of Rome. 

106. It was time for decisive action. Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a little 
river which separated his province from Roman Italy, and advanced with 
one legion, the troops in Gaul having received orders to follow without 
delay. To enter the country without resigning his command was itself a 
declaration of war. Panic seized Rome, and the Senate fled, leaving the 
public treasures behind. Fifteen thousand recruits, destined for Pompey’s 
army, seized their officers and handed them over, with themselves and the 
town Corfii/ium, where they were quartered, to Caesar. Other bodies of 
recruits followed their example. Pompey, having lost more than half his 
ten legions, retired to Brundisium; and though besieged by Caesar, suc¬ 
ceeded in escaping with 25,000 men to Greece. 

The Roman world was now really divided between the two generals. 
Pompey controlled Spain, Africa, and the East, and hoped, by command¬ 
ing the sea and the corn islands, to starve Italy into surrender. Caesar had 
only Italy, Illyricum, and Gaul. If Pompey had acted with energy, he 
might speedily have created an army in the East and regained Rome, but 
by delay he allowed Caesar to attack his provinces in detail, and wrest the 
entire empire from his grasp. The emigrated nobles assembled themselves 
at Thessalonica and re-organized a senate, in which they made a vain show 
of keeping up the constitutional forms, while, by their petty jealousies, they 
hampered every movement of their general-in-chief. 

107. Cu'rio, the ablest of Caesar’s lieutenants, captured Sicily, and thus 
averted famine from Rome. In Africa he was less fortunate. Drawn into 
an unexpected combat with the whole army of King Juba, he was defeated, 
and chose to be slain rather than meet his general in disgrace. Instead 
of the anarchy and general proscription which his enemies had predicted, 
Caesar soon restored order in Italy, and universal confidence, by the mod¬ 
eration and forbearance of his conduct. Friends and foes were equally 
protected. The moneyed class, which had most to gain from a settled 
government, came over to the side of Caesar, and the “ rich lords resumed 
their daily task of writing their rent-rolls.” 

His first foreign enterprise was against Spain, where Pompey had seven 
legions. It was conquered by a severe and toilsome campaign of forty 
days. Returning through Gaul, Caesar received the surrender of Massilia, 
and learned of his appointment to the dictatorship at Rome. He held this 
high office only eleven days, but long enough to preside at the election of , 
consuls, in which he himself, of course, received the greatest number of 
votes; to pass laws relieving debtors, and restoring to the enjoyment of their 
estates the descendants of those whom Sulla had proscribed; and to begin 
his scheme of consolidating the provinces, by granting the full rights of 
Roman citizenship to the Gauls. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


31y 


168. As consul, he then led his army to Brundisium and crossed intc 
Greece. Pompey had assembled from the eastern countries a great army 
and fleet, the latter of which commanded the sea, and seemed to forbid 
the passage of Caesar. But Bibulus, the admiral, confiding in his superior 
numbers and the wintry season, was off his guard until seven legions were 
landed in Epirus. The attempt to capture Pompey’s camp and treasures, 
at Dyrra'chium, failed; but the vain confidence inspired by their partial 
success, in the proud and frivolous young nobles of the refugee party, 
eventually proved their ruin. 

Caesar was, indeed, in a perilous position; his fleet was destroyed, and 
he was cut off in a hostile country where food must soon fail. Neverthe¬ 
less, with his usual good fortune or consummate skill, he contrived to 
draw his victorious enemy after him to the interior of the country, where 
Pompey’s fleet gave him no advantage, and then to choose his own battle¬ 
field at Pharsadia, in Thessaly. The army of Pompey, in horse and foot, 
numbered 54,000 men; that of Csesar, scarcely more than 22,000. The 
former was abundantly supplied both with provisions and military mate¬ 
rials, while the latter was near the point of starvation, and compelled to 
stake its existence on one desperate venture. So certain did the result 
appear, that the patricians in Pompey’s camp were already disputing 
among themselves the succession to Csesar’s pontificate. 

169. On the 9th of August, B. C. 48, the Pompeians crossed the river 
which separated the two camps, and with their cavalry commenced the 
attack. Csesar’s horsemen were driven in, but a picked troop of his legion¬ 
aries, tried on a hundred Gallic fields, unexpectedly charged the assailants. 
Their orders were to aim their javelins at the enemies’ faces. Confused by 
this novel attack, the cavalry turned and fled; and Pompey, who had been 
urged by the reproaches of his self-appointed counselors to give battle, 
contrary to his better judgment, and who had never shared their confi¬ 
dence, did not wait to see the general attack, but galloped away to his 
camp. 

His army was completely routed; 15,000 lay dead upon the field, and 
20,000 surrendered on the morning after the battle. Many of the aristoc¬ 
racy hastened to make their peace with the conqueror; the “irreconcila- 
bles” either betook themselves to the mountains or the sea, to carry on 
for years a predatory warfare; or to Africa, where King Juba, of Numidia, 
perceiving that Csesar’s consolidating policy would deprive him of his 
kingdom, still stood firmly on the Pompeian side. The other client-states 
withdrew their quotas of ships and men as soon as they saw that Pompey’s 
cause was lost. 

170. Pompey fled to Egypt. The young queen, Cleopatra, was now in 
Syria, having been driven from her kingdom by her brother’s guardian, 
PothPnus, who was with an army holding the eastern frontier against her. 


320 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


The perfidious statesmen who surrounded the king, sent out a boat 
inviting the illustrious fugitive to land; but just as he had reached the 
shore, he was stabbed by a former centurion of his own, who was now in 
the service of Ptolemy. Pompey perceived his fate; without a word, he 
covered his face with his toga, and submitted to the swords of his execu¬ 
tioners. His head was cut oft’ and his body cast out upon the sand, where 
it was buried by one of his own attendants 

Csesar soon arrived in pursuit; but when the ghastly head was presentee 
to him, he turned away weeping, and ordered the murderers to be put to 
death. He remained five months at Alexandria, regulating the affairs of 
the kingdom, which he secured to Cleopatra jointly with her brother. 
He thus became involved in war with the people, and in a naval battle 
was once compelled to save his life by swimming from ship to ship, 
holding his sword in his teeth, and the manuscript of his Commentaries 
upon the Gallic Wars in one hand over his head. He was victorious at 
last, and Ptolemy was drowned in the Nile. 

171. Caesar then turned rapidly toward Asia Minor, where Pharnaces 
of Pontus was trying to regain his father’s lost dominions. The Roman 
army had been defeated at Nicopolis with great loss, but Caesar won a de¬ 
cisive victory at Zie^la, and finished the campaign in five days. It was on 
this occasion that he sent to the Senate his memorable dispatch, “Veni, 
vidi, vici.” * The presence of the chief made a similar transformation of 
the war in Africa. The Pompeian party had re-established its senate at 
Utica, and during Caesar’s long delay in Egypt had raised an army fully 
equal to that which had been conquered at Pharsalia. 

In attempting to carry the war into Africa, Caesar met an unex¬ 
pected obstacle in a mutiny of his veterans in southern Italy. Wearied 
out with the unusual hardships of their last campaigns, and imagining 
that their general could do nothing without them, they refused to embark 
lor Sicily, and commenced their march toward Rome. Having provided 
for the security of the city, Caesar suddenly appeared among the legions, 
and demanded to know what they wanted. Cries of “ discharge! ” were 
heard on every hand. He took them instantly at their word; and then 
addressing them as “citizens,” not as “soldiers,” promised them, at his 
approaching triumph, their full share in the treasure and lands which lief 
had destined for his faithful followers, though in the triumph itself they 
could, of course, have no part. 

His presence and his voice revived their old affection ; they stood mute 
and ashamed at the sudden severing of the bond which had been their 
only glory in the past. At length they began to beg, even with tears, that 
they might be restored to favor, and honored again with the name of 


* I came, I saw, I conquered. 




HISTORY OF ROME. 


321 


“ Caesar’s soldiers.” After some delay their prayer was granted; the ring¬ 
leaders were only punished by a reduction of one-third in their triumphal 
presents, and the revolt was at an end. 

172. The campaign in Africa was not less difficult than the one in 
Greece. The Pompeians were well supplied with cavalry and elephants, 
and were able to fight on fields of their own choosing. They gained a 
battle near Rus'pina, but in the more decisive conflict at Thapsus, they 
were completely overthrown. The soldiers of Caesar disregarded his orders 
to spare their fellow-citizens; they were determined to obtain rest from 
war at any cost of Roman blood, and 50,000 Pompeians were left dead 
upon the battle-field. Caesar was now master of all Africa. Cato, com¬ 
manding at Utica, provided for the safety of his friends either by flight or 
surrender; then shutting himself in his room, read all night the treatise 
of Plato on the Immortality of the Soul, and toward morning killed him¬ 
self with his own sword. 

173. Caesar returned to Rome in possession of absolute power. Instead 
of the proscriptions, which, in similar circumstances, had marked the return 
of Marius and Sulla, he proclaimed amnesty to all, and sought to avail 
himself of the wisdom of all parties in re¬ 
organizing civil affairs. As he had never 
triumphed, he now celebrated four days for 
his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and 
Numidia; but the rejoicings were only for 
the conquest of foreign foes, for it was re¬ 
garded as unseemly to triumph over Roman 
citizens. Twenty thousand tables were spread 
in the streets and public squares, gifts of grain 
and money were distributed among soldiers 
and people, and the games were celebrated 
with a splendor never before approached. 

Caesar now applied himself with diligence 
to regulate the disorders of the state; and the 
benefit of one, at least, of his provisions is felt 
even to the present day. The reckoning of 
time, through the carelessness or corruption 
of the pontiffs (see § 29), had fallen into hope¬ 
less confusion : harvest festivals took place in 
spring, and those of the late vintage at mid¬ 
summer. Csesar, as chief pontiff, reformed the 
calendar, by adding ninety days to the current 

year, and then, with the aid of an Alexandrian astronomer, adapted the 
reckoning to the sun’s course. He made the Roman year consist of 365 
days, and added a day every fourth year. Phe Julian Calendar, w ith onlj 
A. H.—21. 



Coin of Csesar, enlarged 
twice the size. 

































































































































































































































322 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


one emendation, * is that which we now follow. In acknowledgment of his 
service in this matter, the Senate ordered the month of Ciesar s birth to be 
called henceforth from his clan-name, July. His successor, Augustus, on 
occasion of some trifling improvement in the calendar, ga\e his own sui- 
name to the following month. 

174. The Pompeians made one more rally in Spain, but they were de¬ 
feated and overthrown by Csesar, in the severe and decisive battle of 
Munda, March 17, B. C. 45. Cneius Pompey, the younger, was slain; 
his brother Sextus soon submitted, and received the family estates. He 
was proscribed during the disorders which followed the death of Coesai, 
and for eight years kept up a piratical warfare upon the sea. Having- 
settled the affairs of Spain, Caesar celebrated a fifth triumph, and was 
loaded by the servile Senate with unlimited powers and dignities. He 
became dictator and censor for life, the latter office now receiving its new 
title, praefecture of morals. He was permitted to make peace or war with¬ 
out consulting either Senate or people. In his highest and most distinctive 
power, that of perpetual imperator, he was to name his successor. His 
person was declared sacred, and all the senators bound themselves by oath 
to watch over his safety. His statues were ordered to be placed in all the 
temples, and his name in civil oaths was associated with those of the gods. 

175. Caesar availed himself of his unprecedented power to plan many 
great works of general utility. He projected a much-needed digest of 
Roman laws, and the founding of a Latin and Greek library on the model 
of that of Alexandria, which had been almost destroyed by fire during the 
recent siege. He proposed to turn the course of the Tiber, so as at once 
to drain the Pontine marshes, to add to the city an extensive tract of land 
available for building, and to connect with Rome the large and convenient 
port of TerracPna, instead of the inferior one of Ostia. 

Above all, he desired to substitute a great Mediterranean empire for the 
mere city government which, for more than a hundred years, had ruled 
Italy and the world. To atone for the narrow policy of municipal Rome, 
he rebuilt the two great commercial cities, Carthage and Corinth, which 
Roman jealousy had demolished; and he effaced, as far as possible, the 
distinctions between Italy and the provinces. In the many colonies which 
he founded in Europe, Asia, and Africa, he provided homes for 80,000 
emigrants, mostly from the crowded tenement houses of Rome itself. His 
plans embraced the varied interests of every class and nation within the 
empire, and aimed to reach, by the union of all, a higher civilization than 
either had attained alone. In the wildest regions of Germany, Dalmatia, 
or Spain, the Roman soldier was followed by the Greek school-master and 
the Jewish trader. 


* That of Pope Gregory XIII., A. D. 1582. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


323 


170. Though occupying the highest rank as a general, Csesar was more 
a statesman than a warrior, and desired to base his government, not upon 
military power, but upon the confidence of the people. He was already 
in his fortieth year when he first assumed the command of an army. Still, 
his great works as a ruler had all to be executed in the brief intervals of 
military affairs. The five and a half years which followed his accession to 
supreme power were occupied by seven important campaigns; and he was 
about undertaking an expedition against Parthia, to avenge the overthrow 
of Crassus, when a violent death ended his career. It is said that he de¬ 
sired, before his departure, to receive the title of king. 

A conspiracy had already been formed among his personal enemies. It 
was now strengthened by the accession of several honest republicans, who 
dreamed that the death of the dictator would restore freedom to the state. 
At the festival of the Lupercalia, Feb. 15, B. C. 44, the crown was offered 
to Csesar, by Antony, his colleague in the consulship ; but, perceiving the 
consternation of the people, he declined it. On the 15th of the following 
month, in spite of many warnings, Csesar repaired to the Senate-house. 
He had just taken his seat, when one of the conspirators stooped and 
touched his robe. At this signal, Casca stabbed him in the shoulder; the 
others thronged around with their drawn swords or daggers. 

Instead of the flattering crowd, nothing but murderous faces and the 
gleam of steel met his eye on every side. Still he stood at bay, wounding 
one assailant with his stylus, throwing back another, and disarming a third, 
until he received a wound from the hand of Brutus, whom, though an ad¬ 
herent of Pompey, he had honored with his confidence and loaded with 
benefits. Then drawing his mantle about him, with the reproachful ex¬ 
clamation, “ And thou , Brutus!” he fell at the base of Pompey’s statue 
mid expired. 

177. Brutus, raising aloft his bloody dagger, cried aloud to Cicero, 
“ Rejoice, father of our country, for Rome is free! ” Never was rejoicing 
more unfounded. If Brutus and his accomplices could have restored to 
the Roman people the simple and self-denying virtues of the olden time, 
Rome would indeed have been free. But Csesar understood the times 
better than his assassins. In cutting off the only man who was capable 
of ruling with clear insight, firmness, and beneficence, they had plunged 
the state again into the horrors of civil war, and made it the easy prey of 
a less able and less liberal despot. Senate and people were at first par¬ 
alyzed by the suddenness of the change, and by fear of a return to the 
old scenes of proscription. Antony, now sole consul, had time to possess 
himself of Cesar’s papers and treasures; and by his funeral oration over 
the body of the dictator— especially by reading his will, in which all the 
Roman people were remembered with great liberality — he roused the 
indignant passions of the crowd against the murderers. 


324 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Antony was for a time the most popular man in Rome, but a rival soon- 
appeared in the person of Octavia / nus, the grand-nephew and adopted son 
of Julius Caesar. This young man, who had been educated with great care 
under the eye of his adoptive father, arrived from the camp at Apollonia 
and claimed his inheritance, out of which he carefully dis' dbuted the 
legacies to soldiers and people. Cicero was led to look upon him as the 
hope of the state, and in his third great series of orations, called the 
Philippics, he destroyed the popularity of Antony and his influence with 
the Senate. Two of Antony’s legions deserted to Octavian, and Antony 
himself, in two battles, was routed and driven across the Alps. 

178. The two consuls for the year 43 B. C. were slain in the battle 
before Mu'tina. Octavian, returning to Rome, compelled the popular 
assembly to elect him to that office, though he was only nineteen years 
of age. He was appointed to carry on the war against Antony, who had 
now been joined by Lepidus — formerly master of the horse to Julius 
Caesar — and was now descending from the Alps with a formidable army 
of seventeen legions. But the Senate, almost equally afraid of Antony 
and Octavian, revoked the outlawry of the former; and the latter, dis¬ 
gusted with its vacillations, resolved upon a league with the two com¬ 
manders, whose forces alone could give him victory over the assassins. 

On a small island in the Reno, near Bonohiia (Bologna), the three met,, 
and the Second Triumvirate, of Antony, Caesar Octavianus, and Lepidus,. 
was then formed, B. C. 43, proposing to share between them for five years 
the government of the Roman world. A proscription followed, in which 
Cicero, though the friend of Caesar, was sacrificed to the hatred of Antony. 
The illustrious orator was murdered near his own villa at Fo^miae, and his 
head and right hand were nailed to the rostrum at Rome, from which he 
had so often discoursed of the sacred rights of citizens. Two thousand 
knights and three hundred senators perished in this proscription. Those 
who could escape took refuge with Sextus Pompey in Sicily, or with 
Brutus and Cassius in Greece. 

179. Antony and Octavian crossed the Adriatic, and defeated the last 
of the conspirators in two battles at Philippi,.in the autumn of 42 B. C. 
Both Brutus and Cassius ended their lives by suicide. Caesar returned to 
Italy, where a new civil war was stirred up by Fulvia, the wife of Antony, 
and Lucius, his brother. Lucius Antonius threw himself into Perusia, where 
he v as besieged and taken by Octavian. The common citizens were spared, 
but 300 or 400 nobles were slain at the altar of Julius Cresar, on the anni¬ 
versary of his death, March 15, B. C. 40. Fulvia died in Greece, and a new 
agreement between the triumvirs, called the Peace of Brundisium, was sealed 
by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of the younger Cresar. 

In the new division of the civilized world, Antony received the East; 
Octavian, Italy and Spain ; and Lepidus, Africa. Sextus Pompey, whose 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


325 


fleets, commanding the sea, threatened the capital with famine, was ad¬ 
mitted, next year, to a sort of partnership with the triumvirate, in which 
he received the islands of the western Mediterranean, on condition of his 
supplying Rome with grain. The conditions of this treaty were never ful¬ 
filled, and a two years’ war between Pompey and Octavian was the result. 
It was ended B. C. 36, by a great sea-fight off Nau'lockus. Agrippa, the 
intimate friend of Csesar, routed the forces of Pompey, who fled in despair 
to Asia, and the following year was captured and put to death. His land 
forces, deserted by their leader, prevailed upon Lepidus to become their 
general, and declare war against Octavian. But the young Caesar acted 
with an intrepidity worthy of his name. He went unarmed and almost 
alone into the camp of Lepidus, and by his eloquence persuaded them to 
desert their unworthy commander and be faithful to himself. 

180. Lepidus being degraded, the two remaining members of the trium¬ 
virate continued three years at the head of affairs. But an alliance so 
purely selfish could not be permanent. Antony neglected his noble wife 
for the enchantments of the Egyptian queen, on whom he bestowed Phoe¬ 
nicia, Ccele-Syria, and other dominions of Rome. He wasted the forces 
committed to him in expeditions which resulted only in loss and disgrace; 
and he laid aside the simple dignity of a Roman citizen for the arrogant 
ceremony of an Eastern monarch. 

In 32 B. C., war was declared against Cleopatra, and in September of the 
following year the forces of the two triumvirs met off Actium, in Acarna- 
nia. Antony had collected a vast fleet and army; but his officers, disgusted 
by his weak self-indulgence, were ready to be drawn over to the side of 
Octavian. Disheartened by many desertions, Antony took no active part 
in the battle, but while those of his forces who still faithfully adhered to 
him were fighting bravely in his defense, he drew off with a portion of his 
fleet, and followed Cleopatra to Egypt. His land army, after waiting a 
week for its fugitive commander, surrendered to Octavian. 

From this moment Csesar was master of the Roman world. The final 
blow was given the next year in Egypt, where Antony was defeated before 
Alexandria, and deserted by his fleet and army. Cleopatra negotiated to 
betray him, but when she found that Octavian wanted to capture her, that 
she might adorn his triumph, she ended her life by the poison of an asp. 
Antony, in despair, had already killed himself, and Egypt became a Roman 
province. Octavian, returning to Rome the following year, celebrated a 
three-fold triumph, and the gates of Janus were closed the third time, in 
token of universal peace, B. C. 29. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Csesar crosses the Rubicon, and in three months becomes master of Italy. He 
subdues the Pompeians in Spain, becomes dictator, and afterward consul; pursues 
Pompey into Greece; is defeated at Dyrrliachium, but victorious at Pharsalia, 


326 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


B. C. 48. Pompey is slain in Egypt. Caesar re-establishes Cleopatra under the 
Roman protectorate; re-conquers Pontus; quells a mutiny in his Gallic legions, 
and overthrows the Pompeians at Thapsus, in Africa. He celebrates four tri- • 
umplis at Rome; reforms the calendar; finally crushes the Pompeians in Spain; 
is invested with sovereign powers, and organizes a cosmopolitan empiie. On the 
eve of departure for Asia, he is murdered in the Senate-house by sixty conspir¬ 
ators. Antony aims to succeed him, but Octavian leceives his inlieiitance. An 
tony, Octavian, and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate, B. C. 43. In the pro¬ 
scription which follows, Cicero is killed. Brutus and Cassius are defeated at 
Philippi, B. C. 42. A dispute in the triumvirate is ended by the Peace ot Bruu- 
disium, and the marriage of Antony and Octavia. Lepidus is degraded from the 
triumvirate, B. C. 35; the two remaining colleagues quarrel, and the battle of 
Actium makes Octavian supreme ruler ot the empiie, B. C. 31. 


III. The Roman Empire. 

181. First Period, B. C. 31-A. D. 192. The empire founded by Caesar 
Octavianus was an absolute monarchy under the form of a republic. 
Many of the high offices, which had been borne by different persons, were 
now concentrated in one; but he declined the name dictator, which had 
been abused by Marius and Sulla, and was careful to be elected only tor 
limited periods, and in the regular manner. The title Imperator, which he 
bore for life, had always belonged to generals of consular rank during the 
time of their command. The name Augustus, by which he is henceforth 
to be known, was a title of honor bestowed by the Senate, and made hered¬ 
itary in his family. As chief, or “ Prince of the Senate/’ he had the right 
to introduce subjects for discussion; and as pontifex maximus, or high 
priest of the state, he had a controlling influence in all sacred affairs. 

He lived in the style of a wealthy senator in his house on the Palatine,, 
walked abroad without retinue, and carefully avoided kingly pomp. The 
popular assemblies still appointed consuls, praetors, quaestors, aediles, and 
tribunes, but the successful candidate was always recommended by the 
emperor, if he did not himself accept the appointment. These old-fash¬ 
ioned dignities were now little more than empty names, the real power 
having passed, under. Augustus himself, to new officers, especially to the 
praefect of the city and the commander of the Praetorian Guard. * The 
people, meanwhile, were satisfied with liberal distributions of corn, wine, 
and oil, and amused by a constant succession of games. 

182. In seven centuries the Roman dominion had grown from the few 
acres on the Palatine Hill, to embrace the Mediterranean with all its 
coasts, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and from the African Desert 
to the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine. The twenty-seven provinces, 


* This guard consisted of 10,000 Italian soldiers, quartered near Rome for the 
security of the emperor’s person. And so great was its influence, that, in the 
later days of the empire, it often assumed to dispose of the crown without refer¬ 
ence to Senate or people. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


327 


reorganized by Augustus, were divided between himself and the Senate 
according to their condition. Those which were securely at peace were 
called Senatorial Provinces, and governed by proconsuls appointed by the 
legislative body; those which demanded the presence of an army were 
Imperial Provinces, and were managed either by the emperor in person or 
by his legates. 

The standing army, which maintained order in the entire empire, con¬ 
sisted, in the time of Augustus, of twenty-five legions, each legion number¬ 
ing, in horse, foot, and artillery, a little less than 7,000 men. This force 
of 175,000 was distributed along the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphra¬ 
tes, or in Britain, Spain, and Africa, according to the danger from the 
outer barbarians. While internal peace was maintained by the wise man¬ 
agement of Augustus, the natural boundaries of the empire above men¬ 
tioned were only gained and kept by active war. Northern and north¬ 
western Spain, the Alpine provinces of Rhsetia and Vindelic'ia, and the 
Danubian countries NoFicum, Panno'nia, and Mce'sia, required almost 
unremitted warfare of more than twenty years, B. C. 12-A. D. 9. 

183. The Germans, east of the Rhine and 
north of the Danube, though often defeated, 
were never subdued. Drusus, a step-son of 
Augustus, was the first Roman general who 
descended the Rhine to the German Ocean. 

He built two bridges and more than fifty 
fortresses along the river, and imposed a 
tribute upon the Frisians north of its mouth. 

Drusus died in his third campaign, B. C. 9, 
and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, 
who after many years, A. D. 4, seemed to 
have subdued the tribes between the Rhine 
and the Elbe. 

But his successor, Qu. Varus, attempted 
to establish the same arrogant and arbitrary 
rule which he had exercised over the slavish 
Syrians — a people crushed by nearly two 
thousand years of despotism, Assyrian, Egyp¬ 
tian, Persian, and Macedonian. The free- 
spirited Germans rose in revolt, under their 
princely leader, ArmiiFius (Herman). Ar- 
minius had been educated at Rome, and had 
thoroughly learned the tactics of the legions; but Roman refinement never 
weakened his German fidelity to fatherland. Private wrong was now added 
to national oppression, and he deeply laid and firmly executed his plan for 
the destruction of the Roman army and the deliverance of Germany. 













































































































































































228 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


184. Varus was enticed into the broken and difficult country of the 
Teutoberg'er Wald, at a season when heavy rains had increased the 
marshiness of the ground. Barricades of fallen trees blocked his way, 
and, in a narrow valley, a hail-storm of javelins burst upon his legions 
from the hosts of Arminius. On the next day the battle was renewed, 
and the Romans were literally destroyed, for all the captives were sacri¬ 
ficed upon the altars of the old German divinities. The garrisons through¬ 
out the country were put to the sword, and within a few weeks not a 
Roman foot remained on German soil. 

The news of the disaster struck Rome with terror. The superstitious 
believed that supernatural portents had accompanied the event. The 
temple of Mars was struck by a thunderbolt, comets blazed in the sky, 
and spears of fire darted from the northward into the praetorian camp. 
A statue of Victory, which had stood on the Italian frontier looking 
toward Germany, turned of its own accord and faced toward Rome. 
Augustus, in his grief, heightened by the weakness of old age, used for 
months to beat his head against the wall, exclaiming, “ Quintilius Varus, 
give me back my legions!” 

By the revolt of Arminius, Germany was once and forever freed. Roman 
armies were led thither by Germanicus and the younger Drusus, but they 
gained no permanent advantages ; and by the will of Augustus and the 
policy of his successors, the Rhine continued to be regarded as the frontier 
until, five centuries later, the tide of conquest turned in the other direction, 
and the Teutonic races divided the Roman Empire into the kingdoms of 
modern Europe. 

185. The reign of Augustus was a refreshing contrast to the century of 
revolution which had preceded it, for the security and prosperity that were 
felt throughout the empire. Commerce revived, agriculture was greatly 
improved, and the imperial city was adorned with temples, porticos, and 
other new and magnificent buildings. Augustus could truly boast that he 
“ found Rome of brick and left it of marble.” A more lasting glory sur¬ 
rounds his name from the literary brilliancy of his court. Livy, the histo¬ 
rian, and Virgil, Horace, Ovid, TibuFlus, with other poets, enjoyed his 
patronage and celebrated his achievements; and in allusion to this, the 
brightest period of every nation’s literature is commonly called its “Au¬ 
gustan Age.” Augustus had no son, and his choice of an heir fell upon 
Tiberius, the son of his wife, Livia, by a former marriage. By the same 
arrangement, Germanicus, the son of Drusus, was adopted by Tiberius, 
and married to Agrippi'na, granddaughter of Augustus. 

186. In the 77th year of his age, Augustus closed his long and wonder¬ 
fully prosperous reign of forty-five years, A. D. 14. The Senate and people 
submitted to his appointed successor. The army would more willingly 
have proclaimed its idolized general Germanicus, but the younger prince 


ROMAN FORUM, UNDER THE EMPERORS 




































































































































































HISTORY OF ROME. 


329 


absolutely refused to sanction the act. Tiberius, so far from prizing his 
fidelity, never forgave his popularity; and the court soon understood 
that the surest way to gain the favor of the emperor was to ill-treat his 
adopted son. 

The policy of Tiberius was that of many another cowardly and suspi¬ 
cious tyrant. Conscious of his own unworthiness, either by birth or 
genius, of the high place he filled, he saw a rival in every possessor of 
great talent or even exalted virtue. He was afraid to call to his assist¬ 
ance the great patricians or the princes of the Julian house, and he 
regarded his own relations with unmingled jealousy. As he found it 
impossible, however, to administer alone all the world-embracing affairs 
of such an empire, he raised to the post of praetorian praefect a Volsinian 
knight, Seja'nus, whom he fancied too mean to be dangerous, but who 
became, in fact, the master of the whole dominion. 

187. Germanicus, meanwhile, conducted three campaigns, A. D. 14-17; 
and, after several disasters, gained some important victories over Armin- 
ius, between the Rhine and the Elbe. He was recalled A. D. 17, to 
receive the honor of a triumph, and was met, twenty miles from Rome, 
by an enthusiastic multitude which had poured forth to welcome him. 
He was, indeed, dangerously dear both to his legions and to the common 
people; and though he believed that in one year more he could complete 
the conquest of Germany, he was now transferred to another army and 
to the eastern wars. In his new command he settled the affairs of Ar¬ 
menia, and organized Cappadocia as a province; but he died A. D. 19, 
near Antioch in Syria, believing himself poisoned by Piso, a subordinate, 
who had been sent by the emperor with express orders to thwart and 
injure his chief. 

188. Drusus, the son of Tiberius, was poisoned by order of Sejanus, 
who had the boldness to request permission of the emperor to marry the 
widow of his victim. This was refused; but Tiberius, still blinded to 
the marvelous ambition of the wretch who ruled him, consented to retire 
to Caprece, and leave Rome in the hands of Sejanus. His time was now 
given up to swinish excesses, while his worthless lieutenant maintained for 
five years a riot of misrule. His wicked schemes did not spare the best 
or noblest of the imperial family; but, at length, he perceived his master’s 
suspicion directed toward him, and prepared to anticipate the blow by 
assassinating Tiberius himself. His plot was discovered, and he was 
suddenly seized and executed, A. D. 31. 

The fall of this unworthy favorite took from Tiberius the only man 
whom he had ever trusted, and henceforth all were equally the objects 
of his fierce and cruel jealousy. Agrippina, the noble wife, as well as 
Nero, Drusus, and Livil'la, the unworthy sons and daughter of German¬ 
icus, were put to death by his orders. Unlike Augustus, who scrupu- 


330 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


lously kept within the forms of law, he usurped the right to condemn 
without trial all who were obnoxious to him; and he extended the defi¬ 
nition of treason to words and even thoughts. From his island retreat 
in the beautiful Bay of Naples, he issued destruction to men, women, and 
even innocent children who had the misfortune to be of sufficiently noble 
birth to attract his attention. It was a relief to the world when he died 
from illness, A. D. 37, at the age of seventy-eight. 

189. Tiberius had appointed no successor, but Senate, soldiers, and 
people united in the choice of Caius Caesar, the only surviving son of 
Germanicus and Agrippina. In his childhood he had been the pet of 
the legions in Germany, and from the little military boots (caligce) 
which he wore to please them, he acquired the nickname Caligula. This 
childish appellation is the name by which he is commonly known in 
history. Caligula was now twenty-six years of age, and was considered 
to be of a mild and generous disposition. The first months of his reign 
justified the impression. He released the prisoners and recalled the exiles 
of Tiberius, and he restored power to the regular magistrates and the 
popular assemblies. But his weak head was turned by the possession of 
absolute power, and, of the enormous wealth hoarded by Tiberius. In 
unbounded self-indulgence, he extinguished the last spark of reason, and 
exerted his tremendous power only for mischief, and in the most wild 
and reckless manner. Choosing to be considered as a god, he built a 
temple to himself, under the name of Jupiter Latiaris ; and so servile 
was Rome now become, that her noblest citizens purchased the honor 
of officiating as priests to this worthless divinity. 

The worst abuse of absolute power was shown in contempt for human 
life. When the supply of criminals for the public games was exhausted, 
the emperor ordered spectators, taken at random from the crowd, to be 
thrown to the beasts; and lest they should curse him in their last 
agonies, their tongues were first cut out. But this mad career of des¬ 
potism worked its own destruction; for, in the fourth year of his reign, 
and the thirtieth of his age, Caius Csesar was murdered by two of his 
guards. 

190. The Roman world being thus suddenly without a master, the 
prsetorians took upon themselves to decide its fate. Finding Claudius,, 
the uncle of Caligula, a weak and timid old man, hiding himself in the 
palace, they saluted him as emperor, and hurried him away to their 
camp, where he received the oaths of allegiance. Considered from child¬ 
hood as lacking in intellect, Claudius had been treated by his relatives 
with a contempt, and by his servants with a harshness and cruelty, which 
only increased the natural irresoluteness of his character. Yet, though 
feeble, he was a good and honest man, and the evil wrought in his 
reign was the work of others. His infamous wife, Messali'na, grati- 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


331 


fled her jealousy and revenge at the expense of the noblest in the 
state, especially the imperial princesses, without even a show of legal 
formality. At last she was executed for her crimes, and the emperor 
procured a law from the Senate which enabled him to marry his niece, 
Agrippina. 

This princess appears to advantage only when compared with her 
predecessor. She recalled Seneca, the philosopher, from exile, and made 
him the tutor of her son, Nero. She protected many who were unjustly 
accused, and she advanced to power the faithful Burrhus, who proved a 
better servant, both to herself and her son, than either deserved. At 
the same time, Agrippina persuaded her husband to set aside his own 
son, Britan'nicus, in favor of her son by a former marriage. This youth 
bore his father’s name, L. Domitius Ahenobar'bus, but by the emperor’s 
adoption he became Nero Claudius Csesar Drusus Germanicus. By the 
first of these names he is known in history as one of the most wicked 
of tyrants. Having gained all that she hoped from the weak compliance 
of Claudius, Agrippina poisoned him, and presented her son to the prae¬ 
torian guards as their imperator. Some, it is said, cried out, “ Where is 
Britannicus? ” but there was no serious resistance, and the new emperor 
was accepted by the Senate, the people, and the provinces. 

191. For the first five years, under the wise and honest administration 
of Seneca and Burrhus, the Romans believed that the golden age had 
returned. Taxes were remitted; lands were allotted to the needy and 
deserving. The delators , that infamous class ot people who made their 
living by accusing others of crime, were suppressed or banished. The 
Roman arms prospered in Armenia, under the able command of CoFbulo, 
who captured the two capitals, Artax'ata and Tigranocerta, and com¬ 
pletely subdued the kingdom. In Germany all was quiet, and the legions 
on the lower Rhine had leisure to complete the embankments which 

protected the land from inundation. 

None of this prosperity was clue, however, to the character of Nero, 
who was a sensual and cruel tyrant even from his youth. In the second 
year of his reign he poisoned his foster-brother, Britannicus. A lew 
years later, he murdered his mother, his wife, and the too faithful 
Burrhus, cast off the influence of Seneca, and thenceforth gave fiee 
course to his tyrannical caprices. He encouraged the informants again, 
and filled his treasury with the confiscated property of their victims. 

192. He persecuted both Jews and Christians, charging upon the latter 
the great fire at Rome, which he was more than suspected of having 
himself caused to be kindled. By this terrible conflagration, ten of the 
fourteen wards, or “ regions,” of the city were made uninhabitable. 
Nero watched the burning from a tower on the Esquiline, while, in the 
dress of an actor, he chanted the “Sack of Troy. ; ’ Whether or not he 


3 0 s 

Oaj 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


had ordered the destruction of Rome in consequence of his disgust with 
its narrow and winding streets, he wisely availed himself of the oppor¬ 
tunity to rebuild it in more regular and spacious proportions. The 
houses were constructed of stone, and rendered fire-proof; each was sur¬ 
rounded with balconies, and separated from other houses by lanes of con» 
siderable width, while a plentiful supply of water was introduced into 
every tenement. 

The palace of Nero having been destroyed, he built his Golden House 
on a scale of magnitude and splendor which Rome had never seen. 
The porticos which surrounded it were three miles in length; within 
their bounds were parks, gardens, and a lake which filled the valley 
afterward occupied by the Flavian Amphitheater. The chambers of this 
imperial mansion Avere gilded and inlaid with gems. The least of its 
ornaments, though probably the greatest of its objects, was a colossal 
statue of Nero himself, 120 feet in height. 

193. Nero desired to be praised as a musician and a charioteer, and 
so far forgot his imperial dignity as to appear as an actor in the thea¬ 
ters. He gained prizes at the Olympic Games, A. D. 67, which had 
been delayed two years that he might be present. He took part, also, 
in the vocal performances at the Isthmian Games, on which occasion he 
ordered the death of a singer whose voice drowned his own. On his 
return, he entered Rome through a breach in the walls, after the ancient 
Hellenic custom ; but the 1,800 garlands with which he had been laden 
by the servile Greeks, showed the decline of the old heroic spirit, rather 
than the glory of the victor. 

194. The impositions of Nero caused revolts in the provinces, and, 
among others, Vespasian, the future emperor, was sent to pacify Judrea. 
But Nero was jealous of his most able and faithful officers. Cor'bulo, 
the conqueror of Armenia, Rufus and Scribo'nius, the commanders in 
Germany, were recalled, and avoided public execution only by putting 
themselves to death. All the generals on the frontier perceived that 
they could escape a similar fate only by timely revolt, and insurrections 
broke out at once in Germany, Gaul, Africa, and Spain. The conspira¬ 
tors agreed, at length, in the choice of Galba, the governor of Hither 
Spain, as their leader and emperor. 

Nero perceived that resistance was hopeless. Deserted by the praeto¬ 
rians and all his courtiers, he fled from his Golden House and hid 
himself in the cottage of Phaon, his former slave, a few miles from the 
city. After spending a night and part of a day in an agony of terror, 
he summoned courage to end his own life, just as he heard the tramp 
of the horsemen who were coming to take him. He was but thirty 
years of age, and had reigned nearly fourteen years. With him expired 
the line of Augustus. • The imperial power never again remained so long 


HISTORY OF ROME . 


333 - 


in any one family as it had among the members, by adoption or other¬ 
wise, of the Julian house. 

RECAPITULATION-. 

Augustus (B. C. 30-A. D. 14) combines in liimself all the dignities of the Re¬ 
public, but carefully avoids the appearance of royalty. He leaves the peaceful 
provinces to the Senate, but assumes the command of those which are at war. 
The Germans, under Arminius, revolt and destroy the legions of Varus. The 
“Augustan Age” is distinguished for prosperity and enlightenment. Tiberius 
(A. D. 14-37) succeeds Augustus, but Sejanus rules the empire. Germanicus and 
many others are persecuted and put to death. Caius Caesar (Caligula, A. D. 37-41) 
begins well, but, soon spoiled by power, exhibits “ the awful spectacle of a mad¬ 
man, master of the civilized world.” He is succeeded by his uncle Claudius 
(A. D. 41-54), a weak but honest man. Agrippina, having poisoned him, makes 
her son Nero emperor (A. D. 54-68). Upon the death of his instructors, he proves 
a reckless and cruel tyrant. He rebuilds Rome with unprecedented magnifi¬ 
cence after the great fire. Having caused the death of his best generals, he kills 
himself only in time to escape the vengeance of his people. 


Decline of the Empire. 

195. Galba, the most distinguished general of his time, had gained 
the favor of the emperor Claudius by refusing to assume the crown upon 
the death of Caligula. He had proved his ability and worth by his wise 
and just administration of the province of Africa, and had been honored 
at Rome with the highest dignities to which his patrician birth and 
eminent services entitled him. He was now more than seventy years 
of age, but learning that Nero had sent orders for his death, he resolved 
to rid the world of a tyrant by accepting the crown. He was a Roman 
of the ancient style, and the luxurious praetorians were equally disgusted 
with his strict discipline and his sparing distribution of money. By 
adopting Piso as his successor, he disappointed Otho, who easily raised 
a revolt against him, and the aged emperor and his adopted son were 

slain in the Forum, Jan. 15, A. D. 69. 

196. Otho, the early favorite of Nero, had for ten years been governor 
of Lusitania. He was acknowledged, on the death of Galba, by the 
Senate and most of the provinces, but the legions in Germany had 
already (Jan. 3, 69) proclaimed their own general, ViteElius. The armies 
of the two generals met near the confluence of the Adda and the Po. 
Otho was defeated, and died by his own hand. Vitellius, having gained 
a crown by the skill and energy of his officers, lost it by his own un¬ 
worthiness. Without the courage or ability of his predecessors, he sur¬ 
passed them in contemptible self-indulgence. Vespasian, commander in 
Judaea, in revolting against this monster, was hailed by the acclamations 
of all good people, and supported by all the legions of the East. He 
took possession of Egypt, the grain-market of Rome, and sent his lieu- 


334 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


tenants into Italy. This time the generals of Vitellius were defeated on 
the Po, the capital was taken by assault, and the disgraced emperor put 
to death. 

197. During the reign of Vespasian, order and prosperity succeeded 
to the stoyms which had convulsed the empire. The old discipline was 
revived, the revenues were re-organized, the capital was beautified, and 
the people employed by the construction of such great works as the 
Coliseum and the Temple of Peace. The space inclosed by Nero for his 
own enjoyment, was thrown open by Vespasian to the use of the people; 
and the materials of the Golden House served to enrich many public 
buildings. The revolt of the Batavians and other tribes on the lower 
Rhine was suppressed, A. D. 70; the Jewish War of Independence was 
finally subdued, the Holy City taken, and the people dispersed. Agric'ola 
completed the subjugation of Britain as far as the Tyne and the Solway, 
which he connected by earthworks and a chain of forts. 

198. Titus, the son of Vespasian, having proved his military talent 
during the reign of his father, by the capture of Jerusalem, had been 
rewarded by a triumph, and by the title of Csesar, which implied his 
association in the government. At the death of Vespasian, he became 
sole emperor without opposition. Whatever may have been his personal 
faults, Titus distinguished himself as a ruler by sincere and constant 
efforts to promote the happiness of his people. Recollecting, one evening, 
that he had performed no act of kindness, he exclaimed that he had lost 
a day. 

The circumstances of his reign made peculiar demands upon the em¬ 
peror’s benevolence. The beautiful Campanian towns, HerculaTieum and 
Pompe / ii, were destroyed by a sudden eruption of Vesuvius. A fire raged 
again three days and nights at Rome, followed by a general and fatal 
pestilence. Titus assumed the pecuniary loss as his own, and even sold 
the ornaments of his palace to defray the expense of rebuilding the 
ruined houses. He established public baths on the site of Nero’s gardens 
on the Esquiline, and completed the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheater, 
which he dedicated by a festival of a hundred days, including combats 
of 5,000 wild beasts. After a reign of but little more than two years, 
Titus died of a fever, having named his brother as his successor, A. D. 81. 

199. Domitian was regarded by the people with more favor than he 
deserved, on account of the virtues of his father and brother. His nature 
was morose and jealous; and when his ill-success in military matters 
began to be contrasted with the victories of his predecessors, he became 
cruel and tyrannical, reviving the false accusations, forfeitures, and 
death-penalties of the reign of Nero. He was partially successful in his 
wars in Germany, but he was defeated on the Danube with great disas¬ 
ter, and even consented to pay an annual tribute to the Dacians, to keep 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


335 


them from invading Moesia. When the cruelties of Domitian began to 
excite the fears of his servants, he was murdered, Sept. 18, A. D. 96. 

200 . The Senate now asserted a power which it had failed to exercise 
since the days of Augustus, by naming Nerva as sovereign. He was a 
childless old man, but he chose for his successor M. UFpius Traja / nus, 
a, general whose vigor and ability, already shown in war, promised well 
for the interests of the state. It was henceforth considered the duty of 
the emperor to select from all his subjects the man most fit to rule, 
without reference to his own family, and the heir thus adopted bore the 
name of Caesar. The mild, beneficent, and economical government of 
Nerva afforded a pleasing contrast to the severe and sanguinary rule of 
Domitian. Upon his death, which occurred A. D. 98, his adopted heir 
was immediately recognized as emperor. 

201 . Trajan was born in Spain, and his youth had been passed in 
military service. The Romans regarded him as the best of all their 
emperors. In personal character he was brave and generous, diligent 
and modest; in his policy as a ruler he was both wise and liberal. He 
scrupulously regarded the rights and dignities of the Senate, and treated 
its members as his equals. He was most diligent in hearing causes that 
were-presented for his judgment, and in corresponding with the governors 
of provinces, who consulted him on all important affairs in their admin¬ 
istration. 

He managed the finances so well, that, without oppressive taxes or 
unjust confiscations, he always had means for the construction of roads, 
bridges, and aqueducts; for loans to persons whose estates had been in¬ 
jured by earthquakes or tempests; and for public buildings in Rome and 
all the provinces. The Ulpian Library and the great “Forum of Trajan,” 
for the better transaction of public business, among many other useful 
and elegant works, bore witness to his liberality. The reign of Trajan 
was a literary epoch only second to that of Augustus. The great histo¬ 
rian Tacitus, the younger Pliny, Plutarch, Sueto'nius, and EpicteTus, the 
slave-philosopher, were all living at this time. 

202 . Augustus had enjoined his heirs to regard the Rhine, the Danube, 
and the Euphrates as the limits of their dominion. Trajan, however, 
desiring to throw off the disgraceful tribute which Domitian had promised 
to the Dacians,- made war twice against their king, Deceb'alus. He was 
completely victorious; the king was slain, and his country became a 
Roman province guarded by colonies and forts. On his return, A. D. 105, 
Trajan celebrated a triumph, and exhibited games during 123 days. It 
is said that 11,000 wild beasts were slaughtered in these spectacles, and 
that 10,000 gladiators, mostly Dacian prisoners, killed each other “to 
make a Roman holiday.” 

In the later years of this reign, the Roman and the Parthian empires 


336 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


came into conflict for the control of Armenia. Trajan quickly reduced 
the latter country to a Roman province, and, in subsequent campaigns, 
he wrested from the Parthians the ancient countries of Mesopotamia and 
Assyria. Trajan died in Cilicia, A. D. 117. His ashes were conveyed 
to Rome in a golden urn, and placed under the column which bears his 
name. 

203. Ha'drian began his reign by surrendering the Asiatic conquests 
of Trajan. During the twenty years of almost unbroken peace which 
marked his administration, Hadrian visited the remotest corners of his 
empire, studied the wants and interests of his people, and tried impar¬ 
tially to secure the best good of all. York in England, Athens, Antioch, 
and Alexandria shared with Rome the honors of an imperial capital; 
and each had its part of those great architectural works which, in some 
cases, still exist to commemorate the glory of Hadrian. A revolt of the 
Jews, A. D. 131-135, was ended with the banishment from Palestine of 
the last remnants of their race. A Roman colony, iE'lia Capitolina, 
was founded upon the site of Jerusalem, to which the Christians, expelled 
by Titus, were freely admitted with the first of their Gentile bishops. 
Of all the benefits which Hadrian conferred upon the empire, the greatest, 
perhaps, was his choice of a successor. 

204. T. Aurelius AntonPnus came to the throne A. D. 138. His un¬ 
eventful reign presents the rare example in Roman annals of twenty- 
three years’ undisturbed tranquillity, and is a striking example of the 
truth of the saying, “ Happy is the people that has no history.” The 
happiness of his great family, for so he regarded his subjects, was the 
ruling purpose of his life. In Britain, the Roman boundary was pushed 
to its farthest northern limit during this reign, and guarded by the 
“Wall of Antoninus,” extending from the Frith of Forth to the Clyde. 

Marcus Aurelius, the nephew of Hadrian, who, together with L. Verus, 
had been adopted by Antoninus, assumed the latter’s name* with his crown. 
He resembled his adoptive father in his love of religion, justice, and peace; 
but his reign was far less happy, owing to calamities which were beyond 
his power to avert. The barbarians north of the Danube began to be 
crowded by a new and great immigration from the steppes of Asia. The 
Scytliic hordes, broken up from their ancient seats, we know not by what 
impulse or necessity, had thrown themselves upon the Germans, and these 
were driven across the Roman frontier, even into Italy, which they rav¬ 
aged as far as Aquilei / a, on the Adriatic. The two emperors proceeded 
against them. Yerus died in the Venetian country A. D. 169, but Au¬ 
relius remained at his post on the Danube, summer and winter, for three 


* Of the two Antonines,tlie first is commonly called Antoninus Pius; the second,- 
Marcus Antoninus. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


337 


years. He gained a great victory over the Quadi, A. D. 174. A sudden 
storm, occurring during the battle, decided the result. The pagans attrib¬ 
uted it to an intervention of Jupiter Pluvius; but the Christians, to the 
prayers of Christian soldiers in the “Thundering Legion.” 

During the first years of the reign of Aurelius, the Parthians made a 
formidable attack upon the eastern provinces, destroyed an entire legion, 
and ravaged all Syria. The general Avidius Cassius, being sent against 
them as the lieutenant of Yerus, more than made good the Roman losses, 
for he extended the boundary of the empire again to the Tigris. But 
, after the death of Yerus, Cassius was led to proclaim himself emperor, 
and gained possession of most of the Asiatic provinces. Before Aurelius 
could arrive in the East, the rebel chief was slain by his own officers, 
after a reign of three months. Aurelius caused his papers to be burnt 
without reading them, and suffered no man to be punished for his part 
in the rebellion. 

The elevation and self-control which distinguished the emperor were 
owing, in great measure, to the Stoic philosophy which he studied from 
his twelfth year. The only blot on his character is the persecution of 
the Christians, which was doubtless instigated by the harsh and arrogant 
Stoics who surrounded him. Justin Martyr at Rome, the venerable Poly¬ 
carp at Smyrna, and multitudes of less illustrious disciples at Vienna and 
Lyons, suffered death for their fidelity to their religion, A. D. 167-177. 
Marcus Aurelius died in Pannonia, A. D. 180. 

205. Deceived by the youthful promise of his only son, Aurelius had 
associated Con/modus with him in the government at the age of fifteen. 
If the young prince could have enjoyed many years of training under 
the wise and virtuous care of his father, he might indeed have become 
all that was hoped of him. But the untimely death of the good Aurelius 
left his son at seventeen a weak, self-indulgent youth, easily controled 
by worthless associates. For three years the government continued in 
the course which Aurelius had marked out for it. But, A. D. 183, a 
plot for the murder of Commodus was detected, and many senators were 
believed to be involved. His revengeful nature, stimulated by fear, now 
made him a monster of tyranny. His only use of imperial power was 
to issue warrants for the death of all whom he suspected. Vain of his 
strength and skill, he assumed the name of the Roman Hercules, and 
exhibited himself in the amphitheater as a marksman and gladiator. 
At last, some of the intended victims of his proscriptions avoided their 
own destruction by strangling him in his bed-chamber, after he had 
reigned twelve years and nine months, A. D. 1J2. 

20G. The decline of the empire, which had been delayed by the Five 
Good Emperors —Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines —pro¬ 
ceeded with frightful rapidity under Commodus. The armies in the 
A. IL—22. 


338 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


provinces, tired of discipline, broke up into petty bands which robbed 
and murdered on their own account. One historian tells us that PereiP- 
nis, the praetorian preefect, was deposed and slain, with his wife and 
children, upon the demand of 1,500 insurgent soldiers who had marched 
unresisted from Britain to Rome. Society was as thoroughly demoralized 
as the army. Except among the despised and persecuted Christians, 
purity of life was scarcely to be found. Poverty was creeping upon the 
nations through the decline of industry, but luxury and self-indulgence 
were more wildly excessive than ever. 

HECAPITULATIOIT. 

Galba (A. D. 68, 69) offends his guards by his strict economy, and is murdered 
after seven months. Otho, three months emperor, is defeated by Vitellius, who 
reigns from April to December, A. D. 69. Vespasian (A. D. 69-79) restores peace, 
order, and prosperity. In his reign Jerusalem is destroyed. The short but benefi¬ 
cent reign of Titus (A. D. 79-81) is disturbed by great calamities —earthquake, fire, 
and pestilence. Doinitian (A. D. 81-96) is a gloomy tyrant, disgraced abroad and 
detested at home. Nerva (A. D. 96-98) restores confidence, and chooses for his 
successor Trajan (A. D. 98-117), who is called the best and ablest of all the em¬ 
perors. He gains victories north of the Danube and east of the Euphrates, thus 
extending the empire to the utmost limits which it ever attains. Hadrian 
(A. D. 117-138) visits every portion of his dominions, and diffuses every-where the 
blessings of peace and good government. Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) enjoys 
a reign of unexampled tranquillity. Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161-180), though a 
peaceful philosopher by choice, is involved by necessity in many wars. He gen¬ 
erously forgives the rebellion led by Cassius, but permits a persecution of the 
Christians, at the instance of the Stoics. Commodus (A. D. 180-193), exasperated 
by a plot against his life, becomes a revengeful tyrant, and under his reckless 
misrule all order, industry, and safety vanish from the empire. 

Second Period, A. D. 193-284. 

207. By their unchecked disorders, the soldiers had learned their power, 
and now assumed to set up and put down emperors at their will. The 
murderers of Commodus proceeded to the house of Per'tinax, prsefect of 
the city, and offered him the crown. He was a good old man, one of 
the few surviving friends of Marcus Antoninus, and one to whose care 
the young prince Commodus had been committed. He reluctantly ac¬ 
cepted the dangerous honor, and the result justified his fears. The 
economy and order which he attempted to introduce, disgusted equally 
the amusement-loving citizens and the turbulent and grasping soldiers. 
Pertinax was murdered in his own palace by the praetorians, March 28, 
A. D. 193, after a reign of less than three months. The guards now put 
up the imperial crown at public auction, and sold it to DkPius Julia'nus, 
a wealthy senator, for $15,000,000. The Senate acknowledged him, and 
he reigned more than two months at Rome. But the armies in Britain, 
Pannonia, and Syria, not so much offended by the scandalous insolence 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


339 


as encouraged by the example of their comrades at the capital, set up 
their own leaders, Albi'nus, Seve'rus, and Niger, as emperors. 

208. Severus arrived first at Rome, gained over the praetorians by 
promises of donatives, and was acknowledged by the Senate. Julianus 
was deserted and slain in his palace. The first imperial act of Severus 
was to disarm the praetorians, and to banish them to a distance of 100 
miles from the capital. He defeated his two rivals, the one at Cyzicus 
and Issus, and the other near Lyons (Lugdu'num), in Gaul; and by their 
death became undisputed master of the empire. Instead of the old 
praetorians, he garrisoned Rome with 40,000 troops chosen from the 
legions, and their chief, the praetorian praefect, became, next the sove¬ 
reign, the most powerful person in the world; for, beside his military 
command, he had control of the public treasury, and great influence in 
the making and enforcing of the laws. Severus was an able and suc¬ 
cessful general. He extended the empire eastward by the capture of the 
Parthian capital, and the conquest of Adiabe'ne; and northward, by his 
wars against the Caledonians. He died at York, the Roman capital of 
Britain, A. D. 211, having reigned eighteen years. 

209. The two sons of Severus, CaracaPla and Geta, had been associated 
by their father in his imperial dignity, and reigned together a year after 
his death. Then their mutual hatred broke out afresh, and after a vain 
attempt to divide the empire between them, Caracalla murdered Geta in 
the arms of their mother. In the five years of his sole reign, he proved 
one of the worst tyrants that Rome had known. Under the pretext of 
exterminating the “friends of Geta,” he massacred 20,000 persons, some 
of whom were the most virtuous and illustrious in the empire. Goaded 
by his restless conscience, Caracalla then quitted Rome, and wandered 
through all the eastern and northern provinces, followed every-where by 
£L track of poverty, desolation, and death. At last he plunged into a war 
with Parthia, in which he had some success; but before his second cam¬ 
paign he was murdered by MacrPnus, his praetorian praefect, whom the 
guards proclaimed emperor. 

210. Macrinus bestowed the title of Caesar upon his son, and then 
hastened to follow up Caracalla’s victories over the Parthians. He en¬ 
countered the Eastern monarch near Nisdbis, and suffered a shameful 
■defeat, which forced him to retire into Syria. The soldiers were now 
tired of their chosen imperator, whose severity of discipline was an un¬ 
welcome change from the reckless liberality of Caracalla. Julia Maesa, 
sister-in-law of Severus, persuaded one division of the army to accept as 
their prince her grandson, Bassia / nus, whom she declared to be a son 
of Caracalla. He is more commonly called ElagaValus, from the Syrian 
sun-god to whose priesthood he had been dedicated as a child. I lie 
wealth which Maesa had hoarded during her residence at her sister’s 


340 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


court materially aided to convince the soldiers. A body of troops, sent 
to quell the insurrection, were also, in great measure, gained over to her 
wishes. A battle was fought near Antioch, in which Macrinus was de¬ 
feated, and eventually slain, after a reign of fourteen months. 

211. Elagabalus, or his ministers, hastened to send a letter to the Senate, 
in which he loaded himself with all the high-sounding titles of Caesar, 
Imperator, son of Antoninus, grandson of Severus, Pius, Felix, Augustus, 
etc. The Romans passively admitted his claims, and the Arval Brothers 
offered their annual vows for his health and safety under all these names. 
The Syrian boy, who, at the age of fourteen, found himself thus clothed 
with imperial honors, was the most contemptible of all the tyrants that 
ever afflicted the Roman world. His days and nights were given up to 
gluttonous feasting and loathsome excesses. 

The decorous and solemn rites of Roman religion were replaced by 
degrading sorceries, which were believed to be accompanied in secret by 
human sacrifices. The Syrian sun-god was placed above Jupiter Capitoli- 
nus himself, and all that was sacred or honorable in the eyes of the people 
became the object of insult and profanation. The emperor had been per¬ 
suaded to confer the title of Caesar on his cousin, Alexander Severus; but 
perceiving that this good prince soon surpassed him in the respect of the 
army, he sought to procure his death. A second attempt was fatal to> 
Elagabalus. The praetorians murdered him and cast him into the Tiber. 

212. Alexander Severus, now in his seventeenth year, was acknowledged 
with joy by the soldiers and the Senate. His blameless life and lofty and 
beneficent aims present a bright, refreshing contrast to the long annals of 
Roman degradation. Purity and economy returned to public affairs; wise 
and virtuous men received the highest offices; the Senate was treated with 
a deference which belonged to its ancient dignity, rather than to its recent 
base compliance with the whims of the army. If the power of Alexander 
had been as great as his designs were pure, the world might have been 
benefited. 

A great revolution, about this time, changed the condition of Asia. The 
new Persian monarchy, under Artaxerxes, the grandson of Sassan, had 
overthrown the Parthian empire,’and now aimed at the recovery of all 
the dominions of Darius Hystaspes. Artaxerxes actually sent an embassy 
to Alexander Severus, demanding the restitution to Persia of her ancient 
provinces between the iEgean and the Euphrates. The reply was a 
declaration of war. Alexander in person met the forces of Artaxerxes in 
the plain east of the Euphrates, and defeated them in a great battie, 
A. D. 232. 

Hearing that the Germans were plundering Gaul, he hastened to make 
peace and returned to Rome. The next year he set out for Germany; but 
before he could begin his military operations there, he was murdered by a 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


341 


small band of mutinous soldiers. The virtues of Alexander were largely- 
owing to the watchful care of his mother, in guarding his childhood from 
the wickedness with which he was surrounded. The prince repaid her 
vigilance by the most dutiful and tender regard; and it is said that her 
over-cautious and economical policy, which led him to withhold gifts of 
money demanded by the army, occasioned his death. 

213. The ringleader of the mutiny was Max'imin, a Thracian peasant— 
ct brutal and illiterate ruffian, yet with enough natural ability to cause him 
to be chosen emperor by his comrades. Three years this savage ruled the 
world, his only policy being hatred toward the noble and covetousness 
toward the rich; until the people of Africa, roused to fury by the extor¬ 
tions of his agents, revolted and crowned their proconsul, Gor'dian, and 
his son. The two Gordians were slain within a month; but the Senate 
supplied their place by two of its own number, and with unwonted spirit 
prepared for the defense of Italy. Maximin marched from his winter- 
quarters on the Danube, but he had advanced no farther than Aquileia 
when he was murdered in his tent by his own soldiers. 

214. Though the legions had destroyed the emperor of their choice, 
they had no intention of yielding to that of the Senate. They murdered 
Pupie'nus and Balbi'nus within six weeks of their triumph over Maximin, 
and bestowed the imperial robes upon a younger Gordian, the grandson 
of the former proconsul of Africa. This boy of twelve years was intended, 
of course, to be a mere tool of his ministers. Timesith'eus, the prsetorian 
prefect, was an able officer, and, so long as he lived, vigorously upheld the 
imperial power against Persian assaults and African insurrections. He 
was succeeded in command by Philip the Arabian, who artfully procured 
the death of the young emperor, and assumed the purple himself. He 
wrote to the Senate that Gordian had died of disease, and requested that 
divine honors should be paid to his memory. 

215. Among the few events recorded of the five years (A. D. 244-249) 
of Philip’s reign, is the celebration of the “Secular Games” at Rome, 
upon the completion of a thousand years from the building of the city, 
April 21, A. D. 248. Rival emperors were set up by the Syrians, and by 
the army in Mcesia and Pannonia. Decius, a senator, was sent by Philip to 
appease the latter. Their mock-emperor was already dead, but the soldiers, 
believing their guilt too great to be forgiven by Philip, thronged around 
Decius with tumultuous cries of “ Death or the purple! ” The loyal officer, 
with a hundred swords at his throat, was compelled to be crowned, and to 
consent to lead his rebellious army into Italy. He wrote to assure his 
master that he was only acting a part, and would resign his mock-sove¬ 
reignty as soon as he could escape his troublesome subjects. But Philip 
did not believe these professions of loyalty. He marched to meet the in¬ 
surgents at Verona, was defeated and slain, Sept., A. D. 249. 


342 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


216. The two years’ reign of Decius (A. D. 249-251) was marked by two 
widely different attempts to restore the ancient religion and morality of 
Rome — the revival of the censorship and the persecution of the Christians. 
It was deeply felt that the calamities of the empire were due to the cor¬ 
ruption of its people. But the first measure produced no effect, while the 
second only aroused the evil passions of men, and occasioned untold misery. 
The bishops of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome became martyrs, and Alex- 
andria was the scene of a frightful massacre. Another calamity, for which 
Decius was not responsible, was the first great incursion of the Goths, who 
ravaged the provinces of Moesia and Thrace south of the Danube. Decius 
was defeated by them in A. D. 250; and the next year, in attempting to 
cut off their retreat, he lost his life in a great battle. 

217. Gallus, an able general, was crowned by the Senate, Hostilia / nus, 
the son of Decius, being associated with him in the imperial dignity. 
Calamities thickened; pestilence raged in Rome, and fresh swarms of 
barbarians, only encouraged by the successes of the Goths, and the sums 
of money which had been paid them as the price of peace, ravaged the 
Danubian provinces. Hostilianus died of the plague, and the distress of 
the people led them to unjust accusations of the emperor. ^Emilianus 
having defeated an army of the invaders, was proclaimed as sovereign by 
his troops, and, marching into Italy, defeated Gallus and his son at Inte- 
ram / na. iEmilian was acknowledged by the Senate, but his reign was short. 
Valerian, a noble and virtuous officer, had been sent by Gallus to bring 
the Gallic and German legions to his aid. He arrived too late to save liis 
master, but he defeated iEmilian near the scene of his former victory, and 
himself received the allegiance of Senate and people. 

It was no enviable distinction, for the causes that were tending to the 
destruction of the empire were more numerous and fiercely active than 
ever. The Franks from the lower Rhine, the Aleman'ni from southern 
Germany, ravaged Italy, Gaul, and Spain, and even crossed the straits into 
Africa. The Goths had made themselves fleets from the forests of the 
Euxine, with which they devastated the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, 
capturing and burning innumerable cities, among which were Cyzicus, 
Chalcedon, Ephesus, and even Corinth and Athens. The new Persian 
kingdom of the Sassanidae had increased in power. Its second monarch, 
Sapor, conquered Armenia, and overran the Roman provinces in the East. 
He defeated and captured Valerian in a battle near the Euphrates, and 
gratified his pride by a spectacle which no monarch before had ever been 
able to exhibit — a Roman emperor, loaded with chains but clothed in 
purple, a perpetual captive at his court. 

The government being thus overwhelmed with calamities, various pre¬ 
tenders claimed the sovereignty of the several fragments of the empire. 
These adventurers were known in general as the “ Thirty Tyrants.” Their 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


34b 


reigns were usually too short or too insignificant to be worthy of mention. 
Palmyra continued to be the royal seat of Odena'tus, and after his death, 
of his widow, Zenob'ia, for ten years, A. D. 264-273, inclusive. Pos'thumus 
established a kingdom in Gaul, which lasted seventeen years. Valerian, 
before his disasters in the East, had associated with him, in the cares of 
empire, his son Gallie'nus; but that prince could attempt little more than 
the defense of Italy. Aure'olus, commanding on the upper Danube, as¬ 
sumed the imperial title and crossed the Alps. He was defeated by Gal¬ 
lienus, and besieged in Milan. Through his arts, Gallienus was slain by 
his own soldiers; but they conferred the purple on a more honest man 
and better general, whom the murdered prince had named in his dying 
moments. Milan was taken .and Aureolus put to death. 

218. Though the Roman Empire seemed to be doomed to destruction, 
equally by disunion within and the attacks of barbarians from without, 
its final disruption was delayed by a succession of able emperors. 
Claudius, who succeeded Gallienus, A. D. 268, vanquished the Alemanni 
in Italy, and the Goths in Mcesia. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) again routed 
the Goths in Pannonia; and then recalling the advice of Augustus, he 
ceded to the barbarians the provinces north of the Danube, removing the 
Roman inhabitants to Moesia. He made a war against Zenobia, which 
ended in the capture of the “ Queen of the East,” and the overthrow 
of her kingdom. A still more difficult enterprise awaited Aurelian in the 
west, where Tet'ricus, the last successor of Posthumus, had united Gaul, 
Spain, and Britain into one powerful monarchy. But he was conquered, 
and the empire was again established on the borders of the Atlantic, 
A. D. 274. 

Aurelian was about to turn his victorious arms against the Persians, 
when he was assassinated by several of his officers, owing to a plot formed 
by his secretary, Mnes'theus. The army, indignant at the crime, applied 
to the Senate for a new emperor, instead of permitting any general to 
seize the crown. The Senate, after six months’ hesitation, during which 
the soldiers respectfully waited, named M. Claudius Tac'itus, a senator of 
vast wealth and blameless character. He would gladly have declined the 
laborious and perilous position, on account of his age and infirmities; but 
the Senate insisted, and Tacitus was crowned. All the acts of his short 
reign were directed to the improvement of morals, and the establishment 
of law and order throughout the empire. He was called away to Asia 
Minor, where a troop of Goths, engaged by Aurelian to serve in his 
Eastern expedition, were committing disorders for want of pay. They 
were expelled; but Tacitus, enfeebled by old age, sank under the exertion, 
and he died two hundred days from his accession to the throne, A. D. 276. 

219. Florian, brother of Tacitus, assumed the purple at Rome, while 
the army in the East proclaimed Probus, their general. The soldiers of 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


644: 

Florian, however, refused to fight their comrades, and, after three months, 
put their leader to death. Probus, thus undisputed master of the Roman 
world, was an able general and a wise and beneficent sovereign. He not 
only drove the Germans out of Gaul, subdued the Sarmatians, and terrified 
the Goths into peaceable behavior, but he provided for the security of his 
extended frontier by settling the border provinces with numerous colonies 
of barbarians, who, becoming civilized, made a barrier against further in¬ 
cursions of their countrymen. He wished, also, to improve waste lands 
by the draining of marshes and the planting of vines, and to employ in 
these works the dangerous leisure of his soldiers. But the legionaries did 
not share the thrifty policy of their emperor. They mutinied at SiPmium, 
and by another murder ended the beneficent reign of Probus, A. D. 282. 

220. Carus, the praetorian praefect, was hailed as emperor by the army, 
and conferred the title of Caesar on his two sons, CarFnus and Nume'rian. 
Leaving the former to govern the West, Carus, with Numerian, turned 
toward the East; first gained a great victory over the Sarmatians in Illyr- 
icum, and then proceeded to overrun Mesopotamia, and capture the two 
great cities of Seleucia and Ctes'iplion. He had advanced beyond the 

Tigris, and seemed about to overthrow the 
Persian kingdom, when he suddenly died, 
whether by lightning, by disease, or by the 
dagger, historians are not agreed. 

His son Numerian yielded to the super¬ 
stitious fears of his soldiers, and withdrew 
within the Roman boundaries. On the re¬ 
treat he was murdered by his father-in-law, 
who was also praetorian praefect, and who 
hoped to conceal the crime until he could 
reap the fruits of it. But the army discov¬ 
ered the death of their beloved emperor, and 
set up DiocleTian, the captain of the body¬ 
guards, to avenge and succeed him. 

Carinus, meanwhile, reigning in the West, 
was dazzling the Roman world by expensive 
games, and insulting it by his profligacy. 
Hearing of the murder and usurpation, he 
marched with a large and well-disciplined 
army to meet Diocletian, and joined battle 
near Margus, in upper Mcesia. The Western 
troops were victorious, but Carinus, while 
leading the pursuit, was slain by one of his own officers. His followers 
came to an agreement with those of Diocletian, who was universally 
hailed as emperor. 



Coin of Diocletian, enlarged 
twice the size. 













































































































































HISTORY OF ROME. 


345 


221. His accession began a new period in the empire, when the power 
of the sovereigns became more absolute, ceasing to be checked either by 
the lawful authority of the Senate or the insolence of the soldiers. 
During the ninety-two years which had elapsed since the death of Coin- 
modus, the legions had claimed the privilege, not only of raising to the 
imperial power whomsoever they might choose, but of removing the object 
of their choice whenever he ceased to content them. No general who de¬ 
sired to be emperor dared stint his donatives, or enforce the needful 
severity of discipline. But for the almost constant danger from bar¬ 
barians without, the army, which was the real tyrant of the Roman world, 
might have already put an end to all order, peace, and civil government. 

RECAPITULATION-. 

Pertinax (A. D. 193) is crowned and murdered by the praetorians, who then 
sell the throne to Julianus. Severus (A. D. 193-211) buys the adhesion ol' the 
guards, and having gained the imperial power, disarms and expels them. He 
enlarges his dominions by conquests both in the east and west. Caracalla mur¬ 
ders his brother, and misgoverns the empire six years, A. D. 211-217. Macrinus 
(A. D. 217, 218) gains and loses his crown by violence. Elngabalus (A. 1). 218-222) 
introduces Syrian manners and worship into Rome. He is succeeded by his 
cousin, Alexander Severus (A. D. 222-235), who gains a great victory over the 
new Persian empire of the Sassanidse, but is afterward slain in Germany during 
a mutiny of his troops. Maximin (A. D. 235-238), a Thracian, is set up, and in 
three years put down, by his comrades in the army. The two Gordians reign 
less than a month, Pupienus and Balbinus about six weeks, when a younger 
Gordian (A. D. 238-244) is invested with the purple at the age of twelve. He loses 
his life through the arts of Philip the Arab, who becomes emperor, and cele¬ 
brates, A. D. 248, the thousandth year of the existence of Rome. Decius, being 
sent to quell a revolt in Pannonia, is crowned by the soldiers, A. D. 249, and 
Philip is slain. Two great calamities mark the reign of Decius: a persecution 
of Christians and an incursion of Goths. Gallus (A. D., 251-253) is deposed by 
JEmilianus, who is soon superseded by Valerian (A. I). 254-250). The whole 
empire is overrun by Gothic and German invaders. Valerian, in his wais in 
the East, is captured, and spends the last seven years of his life at Sapoi s couit. 

Thirty Tyrants” spring up in various parts ot the empiie. Gallienus leigns in 
Italy, first with his father. Valerian, and afterward alone, A. D. 254-268. He is 
slain through the management of a pretender, Aureolus, but is succeeded by 
Claudius (A. D. 268-270), who defeats the barbarians. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) 
makes the Danube again the northern boundary of the empire; subdues Zenobia 
in the east and Tetricus in the west; is murdered on his way to Persia. Tacitus 
(A. D. 275, 276), being appointed by the Senate, reigns two hundred dajs. 1* loiian, 
his brother, is deposed by his own troops. Probus (A. D. 276-282) restores security 
by a wise and energetic reign. Cams gains great victories in the East; but after 
his sudden death, his son Numerian abandons his conquests. Numerian is slain 
in the East, Carinus in the West, and Diocletian becomes emperor. 

Third Period, A. D. 284-395. 

222. Under the firm and wise policy of Diocletian, the Roman world 
entered upon a century of greater vigor and security. The empire being 
too large to be administered by a single head, Diocletian conferred equal 


346 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


power upon his friend and comrade MaxinPian, with the title ot Augustus^ 
A few years later, two Caesars, Gale'Tius and Constan / tius, were added to 
the imperial college, each being associated, as adopted son and successor, 
with one of the emperors. To the Caesars were assigned the more exposed 
provinces, which needed an active and vigilant administration, while the 
Augusti kept to themselves the old and settled portions ol the empire. 
Constantius had Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the whole frontier of the Rhine; 
Galerius had Noricum, Pannonia, and Mcesia, with the defenses of the 
Danube; while Maximian governed Italy and Africa, and Diocletian re¬ 
tained for himself Thrace, Macedonia, Eg} r pt, and the East. Though 
allotted thus to its several rulers, the empire was not divided. The four 
princes governed in consultation, and were equally honored in all paits 
of the realm. 

223. In A. D. 286, a naval chief, Carau'sius, being intrusted with a 
powerful fleet for the defense of the British and Gallic coasts against the 
Franks, gained over the troops in Britain, seized the island, and set up an 
independent government. He built new ships, and soon became master of 
the Western seas. Diocletian and Maximian, after vain attempts to break 
his power, were compelled to acknowledge him as their colleague in the 
empire, A. D. 287. Constantius, upon becoming Caesar, made war, A. D. 
292, upon this new Augustus; captured Boulogne after a long and severe 
siege, and was preparing to invade Britain, when Carausius was killed by~ 
his chief officer, AllecTus. 

Constantius landed, three years later, in Britain, and by a battle near 
London recovered the island. He afterward drove the Alemanni out of 
Gaul, and settled his captives in colonies upon the lands depopulated by 
their ravages. At the same time, Maximian quelled a formidable revolt 
of the Moors in Africa; and Diocletian, by a siege of eight months, cap¬ 
tured Alexandria, where a rival emperor had usurped the throne, and 
punished the rebellious city by a massacre in which many thousands 
perished. The Caesar Galerius made war against the Persians for the 
recovery of Armenia, which they had taken from Tirida'tes, the vassal of 
Rome. He was defeated near Carrhae, on the very scene of the overthrow 7 
of Crassus, more than three centuries before; but he retrieved this misfor¬ 
tune by a great victory over King Narses, followed by an advantageous 
peace. 

224. The system of Diocletian was thus effective and prosperous, as far 
as it concerned the foreign enemies of the state; but the expenses of four 
imperial courts, with the immense number of soldiers and officials, imposed 
heavy burdens upon the people. The wretched tax-payers were often tor¬ 
tured to enforce payments which they w r ere unable to make. The civil w r ars 
of the preceding centuries had deprived extensive districts of inhabitants; 
and the productions of the earth and of human industry had ceased. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


347 


225. The greatest blot upon the memory of Diocletian is the persecu¬ 
tion of Christians in the last year of his reign. Every province and every 
great city of the empire had now heard the doctrines of Christ, and the 
church in Rome numbered 50,000 members. In an age of turbulence and 
corruption, Christians were every-where distinguished as the most orderly, 
industrious, loyal, and honest members of the community. Their refusal 
to worship the image of the emperor, which was an essential part of the 
Roman religion, had brought upon them several local persecutions, but 
none so widely extended and severe as that of Diocletian. The edict re¬ 
quiring uniformity of worship was issued A. D. 303. Instantly the cruel 
passions of the pagans were let loose from restraint. Innocent blood flowed 
in every province. Whoever had either malice or covetousness to indulge, 
had only to accuse his enemy of being a Christian, and to be rewarded 
with half the confiscated goods. In the extreme west, Constantius pro¬ 
tected those of the “ new religion,” but elsewhere there was no appeal 
from the atrocious cruelties sanctioned by courts of law. 

226. Of the many acts by which Diocletian abased the authority of the 
Senate, the most effective was the removal of the center of government 
from the ancient city on the Tiber. His own official residence was at 
Nicomedia; that of Maximian, at Milan; while Constantius held a provin¬ 
cial court at York, and Galerius at Sirmium, on the Savus. The Senate 
thus became the mere council of a provincial town. Imperial edicts took 
the place of the laws which had formerly received its sanction. The inso¬ 
lent praetorians were, at the same time, replaced by the “Jovian” and 
“Herculean Guards”; and their prsefect, who had been a rival of the 
emperor, became merely an officer of the palace. Diocletian, however, 
celebrated the twentieth year of his reign, and his numerous victories, by 
a triumphal entry into Rome; and this was the last “triumph” which the 
ancient capital ever beheld. 

227. The next year, A. D. 305, Diocletian, worn out with the cares of 
empire, formally abdicated his power, and compelled Maximian to do the 
same. The two Csesars now became Augusti, and two new candidates, 
Maximin and Severus, were appointed by Galerius to the former title. 
The legions in Britain were dissatisfied, however, by seeing the choice of a 
successor taken away front their own imperator; and upon the death of 
Constantius, A. D. 306, they immediately proclaimed CoiTstantine, his son. 
He was acknowledged as Caesar by Galerius, who conferred the rank of 
Augustus on Severus. 

But, the next year, Maxen'tius, son of Maximian, was declared emperor 
by the Senate and people of Rome, and his father resumed the purple, 
which he had unwillingly laid aside at the command of Diocletian. 
Severus, attempting to crush this insurrection, was taken captive at 
Ravenna, and privately put to death. Galerius now conferred the impe- 


348 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


rial dignity on Licinius, and for two years the Roman world was peaceably 
governed by six masters: Constantine, Maximian, and Maxentius in the 
West; Galerius, Maximin, and Licinius in the East. 

228. The peace was first broken by the dissensions of Maximian and his 
son. The elder emperor fled from Rome, and was well received by Con¬ 
stantine, who had married his daughter. Before long, however, Maximian 
entered again into plots with Maxentius for the ruin of Constantine; 
which becoming known to their intended victim, he returned promptly 
from his campaign on the Rhine, besieged his father-in-law in Massilia, 
and put him to death, A. D. 310. Galerius died the next year at Nico- 
media, and the empire was again divided into four parts, of which Constan¬ 
tine ruled the extreme west; Maxentius, Italy and Africa; Licinius, 
Illyricum and Thrace ; Maximin, Egypt and Asia. 

The cruel and rapacious character of Maxentius wearied out his subjects, 
who sent deputies from Rome, beseeching Constantine to come and be their 
sovereign. This great general had won the love of his followers, not less 
by his firm and successful dealings with the barbarians, than by his liberal 
protection of the Christians, whose virtues he esteemed, and whose rights 
of conscience he respected. On his march toward Italy, it is said that he 
beheld a vision. A flaming cross appeared in the heavens, bearing in Greek 
the inscription, “ By this, conquer! ” Thenceforth, the cross replaced the 
pagan symbols which had been carried at the head of the legions; and the 
omen, if such it was, was amply fulfilled. 

229. Constantine passed the Alps, A. D. 312, defeated the troops of 
Maxentius near Turin, captured Verona after an obstinate siege and battle, 
and encountered his rival in a final combat before the gates of Rome. In 
the battle of the Mil'vian Bridge, Maxentius was defeated and drowned. 
The following year, Maximin was defeated by Licinius, in a great battle 
at Heraclea, on the Propontis, and put an end to his life at Tarsus, in 
Cilicia. Constantine and Licinius, in a series of battles, divided the world 
between them. The river Strymon and the iEgean became the boundaries 
between the Eastern and Western empires. Two sons of Constantine and 
one of Licinius received the title of Caesar. Crispus, on the Rhine, gained 
a victory over the Franks and Alemanni; and Constantine, on the Danube, 
executed a terrible vengeance upon the Goths, who had invaded the Roman 
territory. 

230. After seven years’ peace, war broke out between the emperors, in 
A. D. 322. Licinius was defeated near Hadriano'ple, besieged in Byzan¬ 
tium, and finally overthrown upon the Heights of Scuta'ri, overlooking 
the latter city. His death made Constantine the sole ruler of the civilized 
world. His great dominion received a new constitution suitable to its 
magnitude. The seat of government was fixed upon the confines of 
Europe and Asia, in the new and magnificent city bearing the emperor’s 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


349 


name, which he built upon the ruins of the Greek Byzantium. The whole 
empire was divided into four prcefectures, which nearly corresponded to the 
dominions of the four emperors, A. D. 311. (g 228.) Each prefecture 
was divided into dioceses , and each diocese into proconsular governments, 
or presidencies. 

This subdivision of the empire gave rise to three ranks of officials, 
somewhat resembling the nobility of modern Europe. The republican 
form of government, so ostentatiously cherished by Augustus, had now 
disappeared, and in its place was the elaborate ceremony of an Oriental 
court. Even the 10,000 spies, known as the “ King’s Eyes,” were main¬ 
tained as of old by Xerxes and Darius. A standing army of 645,000 men 
was kept upon the frontier; but as Roman citizens were now averse to 
military service, the legions were largely composed of barbarian mercena¬ 
ries. The Franks, especially, had great importance, both in the court and 
camp of Constantine. 

231. The great event of this reign was the admission of Christianity as, 
in a certain sense, the religion of the state. The Edict of Milan, A. D. 313, 
guaranteed to the hitherto persecuted people perfect security and respect; 
that of A. D. 324 exhorted all subjects of the empire to follow the example 
of their sovereign, and become Christians. Heathenism was not yet pro¬ 
scribed. Constantine was pontifex maximus, and must, on certain occa¬ 
sions, have offered sacrifices to the fabulous gods of Rome. It was only in 
his last days that he received Christian baptism ; but he presided in the 
first General Council of the Church at Nice, in Bithynia, A. D. 325, to 
which he had convened bishops from all parts of the empire, to decide 
certain disputed matters of faith. Though he treated the assembled fathers 
with everv mark of reverence, he refused to persecute Arius and his fol¬ 
lowers, the Alexandrian heretics, whom the Council condemned. 

232. Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, who had been named Caesar 
at the age of seventeen, was the idol of the people, but an object of jeal¬ 
ousy to his father, who suspected him of treasonable designs. Whether the 
charges against him were true, we have no means of knowing. He was 
seized during the festivities in Rome, in honor of the twentieth year of his 
father’s reign, tried secretly, and put to death. The last years of Constan¬ 
tine were disturbed by fresh movements of the barbarians north of the 
Danube. The Sarmatians, being attacked by the Goths, implored the aid 
of the Romans. Constantine was defeated in one battle with the invaders, 
but in the next he was victorious, and 100,000 Goths, driven into the 
mountains, perished with cold and hunger. In the division of spoils, the 
Sarmatians were dissatisfied, and revenged themselves by making inroads 
upon the Roman dominions. In succeeding wars they were defeated and 
scattered; 300,000 were received as vassals of the empire, and settled in 
military colonies in Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italj. 


350 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


233. Hoping to secure peace to the empire after his death, Constantine 
assigned its different parts to his three sons and two nephews, whom he 
had carefully educated for their great responsibilities. But his care was 
unavailing. Immediately upon his decease, A. D. 337, Constantius, his 
second son, being nearest, seized the capital, and ordered a massacre of 
all whose birth or power could give them any hopes of obtaining the sov¬ 
ereignty. Of his own relatives, only two cousins, Gallus and Julian, es¬ 
caped. The three sons of Constantine then divided the empire between 
them. Constantine II., the eldest, received the capital, together with 
Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constantius had Thrace and the East; Constans, 
Italy, Africa, and western Illyricum. 

The reign of Constantius was occupied by a disastrous war with Persia. 
The pagan Armenians revolted upon the death of their king, Tiridates — 
a “ friend of the Romans,” who had established Christian worship in his 
dominions — and opened their gates to the Persians. The son of Tiridates 
sought the aid of Constantius, who succeeded in restoring the prince Chos'- 
roes to his dominions. The fortress of Nisibis, which was esteemed the 
bulwark of the East, withstood three memorable sieges by the Persians; 
but the Roman armies were defeated in nine pitched battles, and the raids 
of the Persian cavalry extended even to the Mediterranean, where they 
captured and plundered Antioch. 

234. In the meanwhile, discord had broken out between the emperors 
in the West, and Constantine II., invading the dominions of his brother 
Constans, was defeated and slain near Aquileia. Constans seized his prov¬ 
inces, and reigned ten years (A. D. 340-350) over two-thirds of his father’s 
empire. Magnentius, an officer in Gaul, then assumed the purple, and 
Constans was slain. Constantius, recalled from his Persian wars, defeated 
Magnentius in a toilsome campaign on the Danube; received the submis¬ 
sion of Rome and the Italian cities; and finally, by a great battle among 
the Cottian Alps, ended the rebellion with the life of the usurper, A. D. 
353. Sixteen years after the death of the great Constantine, the empire 
was thus reunited under one sovereign. Gallus, the cousin of Constantius, 
had been taken from prison to receive the title of Caesar and the govern¬ 
ment of the East. But he proved wholly unfit to rule; he treated with 
insult the embassador of his cousin, and even caused him to be murdered 
by the mob of Antioch. Gallus was thereupon recalled, and put to death 
.at Pola, in Is'tria. 


BECAPITULATION. 

Diocletian (A. D. 284-305) associates Maximian as “ Augustus,” and Galerius 
and Constantius as “Csesars,” with himself in the management of the empire. 
Constantius overthrows the sovereignty of Carausius in Britain and northern 
■Gaul. Galerius gains victories in Asia; Diocletian, in Egypt; and Maximian, in 
Africa. The new system is efficient abroad, but oppressive at home. Christians 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


351 


are severely persecuted. Seat of government removed from Rome. Diocletian 
and Maximian resign, A. D. 305. Galerius (A. D. 305-311) and Constantius (A. D. 
305,300) become emperors; Severus and Maximin, Caesars. Constantine tlie Great 
(A. D. 300-337), succeeding liis father, Constantius, eventually conquers Maximian, 
who has resumed the purple, and Maxentius (A. D. 312), who has been proclaimed 
at Rome, and reigns over the Western empire. Licinius (A. D. 307-323), after the 
death of Galerius, conquers Maximin, and reigns east of the iEgean. Constantine 
conquers Licinius, A. D. 323, and becomes sole emperor. Fixes his court at Con¬ 
stantinople; reorganizes the government; makes Christianity the religion of the 
state; has wars with the Goths; and establishes military colonies of Sarmatians 
within the bounds of the empire. After his death, his three sons destroy their 
kinsmen, and divide the dominion between them. While Constantius II. is at 
war with Persia, his brother, Constantine II., is slain by Constans, who is him¬ 
self deposed, after ten years, by Magnentius. Constantius, returning from the 
East, A. D. 350, defeats Magnentius, and reigns over his father’s entire dominion, 
A. D. 353-361. 


Extinction of Paganism. 

235. Julian, the younger brother of Gallus, was permitted to pursue his 
favorite studies at Athens, until, A. D. 355, he was called to the court of 
Milan, dignified with the title of Caesar, and intrusted with the government 
of Gaul. His conduct displayed great energy and talent. He severely de¬ 
feated the Alemanni, in the battle of Strasbourg; drove the Franks from 
their castles on the Meuse; and in three invasions of Germany, liberated 
20,000 Roman captives. He rebuilt the cities of Gaul which the barbarians 
had destroyed; adorned Paris, his winter residence, with a palace, theater, 
and baths; imported grain from Britain for the sustenance of the people; 
and protected agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. 

Constantius became jealous of his cousin’s fame, and sought to disarm 
and disgrace him, by ordering the greater part of the Gallic army to the 
East. Julian was preparing to send away his devoted followers, but the 
soldiers mutinied, proclaimed him emperor, and forced him to assume the 
purple robe. An embassy to Constantius was contemptuously dismissed; 
and Julian, after again chastising the Franks, and improving the defenses 
of the German frontier, set forth to decide the question by actual war. 
Penetrating the Black Forest as far as the Danube, he descended that river 
with a captured fleet, surprised Sirmium, and was received with acclama¬ 
tions by the people. He sent letters justifying his conduct to the principal 
cities of the empire, especially to the senates of Athens and Rome, and he 
was invested by the latter with the imperial titles which it alone could 
legally bestow. The sudden death of Constantius, at Tarsus, Nov., A. D. 
361, ended the uncertainty. All Constantinople poured forth to welcome 
Julian, at a distance of sixty miles from the capital, and soldiers and 
people throughout the empire accepted him as their head. 

236. His first acts were to retrench the Oriental luxury of the palace, 
to punish the officers of Constantius who had oppressed the people, and to 


352 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


dismiss the 10,000 spies. A philosopher by choice, and an emperor only 
by compulsion, Julian prided himself upon the frugal simplicity of his 
habits, and professed himself merely the “servant of the Republic.” He 
is known in history by the unhappy name of “ Julian the Apostate.” In¬ 
censed against the Christian cousins who had murdered his entire family, 
he extended his hatred to the faith which they so unworthily professed. 
He publicly renounced Christianity, and placed himself and his empire 
under the protection of the “Immortal Gods.” 

To spite the Christians, he patronized the Jews, and attempted to rebuild 
their Temple at Jerusalem; but he was thwarted by balls of fire breaking 
out near the foundation, which made it impossible for the workmen to 
approach.* He excluded all Christians from the schools of grammar and 
rhetoric, hoping thus to degrade them in intellectual rank, and weaken 
them in controversy. He, however, disappointed the pagan zealots by 
proclaiming toleration to all parties. In the spring of A. D. 363, Julian 
departed with a great army for the East, where the ravages of the Persian 
king had for four years met with little resistance. He gained an important 
victory over the Persians at Ctesiphon, but in a subsequent skirmish he 
was mortally wounded, and died, June, A. D. 363, after a reign of only 
sixteen months. 

237. Jovian, the captain of the life-guards, was saluted as Augustus by 
the generals of Julian. He obtained peace with the Persian king by ceding 
the five provinces east of the Tigris, and then conducted a difficult retreat 
to the capital. The principal act of his reign was the re-establishment of 
Christian worship and of universal tolerance. He died, Feb., A. D. 364, 
after a reign of eight months. The civil and military officers of the empire 
met at Nictea, and chose for their sovereign Valentin / ian, a Christian and 
a brave soldier, who had distinguished himself by service both on the 
Tigris and the Rhine. His brother Valens was made his colleague, with 
the command of the East, extending from the lower Danube to the 
boundaries of Persia. 

238. Valentinian fixed his capital at Milan, which alternated with 
Rheims and Treves as his headquarters. He signally defeated the Ale- 
manni, and guarded the Rhine by a new series of forts. The coasts of 
western Europe now began to be overrun by piratical Saxons, while the 
Piets and Scots swept over all the cultivated fields of southern Britain, 
from the Wall of Antoninus to the coast of Kent. Theodosius, father of 
the future emperor of that name, led a veteran army to the relief of the 
Britons, and afterward gained among the Orkneys a great naval victory 
over the Saxons. 


>So saj s Ammia nus Mai colli uus, an lioucst and usually trustworthy historian 
contemporary with Julian, and probably a pagan. 





HISTORY OF ROME. 


353 


Having defeated the Alemanni on the upper Danube, Theodosius was 
next sent into Africa to quell a revolt of the Moors and provincials, pro¬ 
voked by the extortions of Count Roma'nus. Firmus, the chief of the 
Moors, was as wily as Jugurtha, but Theodosius showed all the skill of 
Metellus or of Scipio. He imprisoned Romanus and restored order to the 
province; but he was rewarded only by unjust suspicions and a military 
execution, A. D. 376. Valentinian was already dead (Nov., A. D. 375),, 
and the ministers who surrounded his son disguised the truth to suit their 
own purposes. 

231). Valens. meanwhile reigning in the East, w r as far inferior to his 
brother in firmness and beneficence of character. At the beginning of his 
reign, Proco'pius, a kinsman of Julian, gained possession of Constantino¬ 
ple, and kept it several months as nominal emperor. He was captured at 
last, and suffered a cruel death in the camp of Valens. The great event 
of this period was the irruption of a new and terrible race of savages from 
northern Asia. The Huns were more hideous, cruel, and implacable than 
even the fiercest of the barbarians hitherto known to the Romans. The 
Great Wall, which still divides China from Mongolia, had been erected as 
a barrier against their inroads; but their attention was now turned to the 
westward, where the Goths, north of the Black Sea, were the first to feel 
their power. 

The great Gothic kingdom of Her'manric extended from the Danube 
and Euxine to the Baltic, and embraced many kindred tribes, of which 
the eastern or Ostro-Goths, and the western or Visi-Goths were most 
important. The former were conquered by the Huns; the latter besought 
permission from Valens to settle on the waste lands south of the Danube, 
and become subjects of the empire. Their request was granted, and a 
million of men, women, and children crossed the river. But the Roman 
commissioners who were charged with receiving and feeding this starving 
multitude, seized the opportunity to make their own fortunes, at the ex¬ 
pense of their honor and of the safety of the empire. 

The Goths had been required to give up their arms, but they purchased 
of these officers permission to retain them. I he food which was served to 
them was of the vilest quality and most extravagant price. Discontent 
broke out among the turbulent and armed host. The Gothic warriors 
marched upon Marcianop'olis, defeated the army which was sent to defend 
it, and laid waste all Thrace with fire and sword. Instead of pacifying the 
Goths by a just punishment of the offenders, and by pledges of justice for 
the future, Valens sent for aid to his nephew Gratian, and advanced with 
his army to fight with the barbarians. In a battle near Hadrianople he 
was slain, and two-thirds of hjs army perished, A. D. 378. 

240. Gratian, the son of Valentinian, had been three years emperor of 
the West, and now became sole sovereign of the dominions of Augustus. 

A. H.—23. 


354 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


He chose, however, for a colleague, the general Theodosius, to whom he 
committed the empire of Valens, with the addition of the province of 
Illyricum. The youth of Gratian was adorned by a fair promise of all the 
virtues; but as soon as his excellent instructors left him, he proved him¬ 
self weak and wholly unfit for command. Bad men gained and abused 
his confidence. 

Maximus, in Britain, revolted, and passed over into Gaul with an army. 
Instead of fighting, Gratian fled from Paris; his armies deserted to the 
enemy, and the fugitive emperor was overtaken and slain at Lyons, 
A. D. 383. He had already, on his accession, shared the imperial dignity 
with his brother, Valentinian II., then only five years of age. Maximus, 
being in actual possession of the countries west of the Alps, was ac¬ 
knowledged by Theodosius, on condition of the young Valentinian being 
left in secure possession of Italy and Africa. The sovereign of Gaul, 
Spain, and Britain soon became strong enough to break his word. He 
invaded Italy, and the young emperor, with JustPna his mother, fled to 
the court of Theodosius for protection. The emperor of the East marched 
to attack Maximus, whom he defeated and caused to be executed as a 
traitor, and established Valentinian II. in the sovereignty of the whole 
Western empire. 

241. The young sovereign of the West proved as weak as his brother. 
He fell under the control of an officer of his own, a Frank named Ar- 
bogas'tes; and when he attempted to shake off the yoke, the too power¬ 
ful servant murdered his master and set up an emperor of his own 
choosing. Euge'nius reigned two years (A. D. 392-394), as the tool of 
Arbogastes; but Theodosius at length defeated his army near A.quileia, 
and put him to death. 

For four months the Roman world was united, for the last time, 
under one sovereign. Theodosius the Great well deserved the title by 
which he is known in history. His vigorous and prudent management 
changed the Goths from dangerous enemies into powerful friends. Great 
colonies of Visi-Goths were formed in Thrace, and of Ostro-Gotlis in 
Asia Minor; and 40,000 of their warriors were employed in the armies 
of the emperor. If later monarchs had acted with the wisdom and 
firmness of Theodosius, these recruits might have added great strength 
to the then declining empire. They were, in fact, a chief occasion of its 
fall. 

242. This reign is marked by the extinction of the old pagan worship. 
The temples were destroyed, and all sacrifices or divinations forbidden. 
The Egyptians believed that Serapis would avenge any profanation of 
his temple at Alexandria; but when a soldier, climbing to the head of 
the colossal idol, smote its cheek with his battle-ax, the popular faith 
was shaken, and it was admitted that a god who could not defend 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


355 


himself was no longer to be worshiped. Arians and other Christian 
heretics were persecuted with scarcely less rigor than the pagans; for 
they were forbidden to preach, ordain ministers, or hold meetings for 
public worship. The penalties inflicted by Theodosius were nothing 
more than fines and civil disabilities; but his contemporary, Maximus, 
is said to have been the “ first Christian prince who shed the blood of 
his Christian subjects for their religious opinions.” 

The power and dignity of the Church at this time is shown by the 
conduct of Ambn/sius, Archbishop of Milan. Theodosius had ordered a 
general massacre of the people of Thessalonica, as a punishment for a 
wanton tumult which had arisen in their circus, during which a Gothic 
general and several of his officers had been killed. Several thousands 
of persons, the innocent with the guilty, were slaughtered by barbarian 
troops sent thither for the purpose. When the emperor, who was then 
at Milan, went as usual to church, Ambrosius met him at the door, and 
refused to admit him to any of the offices of religion until he should 
publicly confess his guilt. The interdict continued eight months; but, 
at length, the master of the civilized world, in the garb of the humblest 
suppliant, implored pardon in the presence of all the congregation, 
and was restored, at Christmas, A. D. 390, to the communion of the 
Church. 

Before his death, Theodosius divided his great dominions between his 
two sons, giving the East to Arcadius, and the West to Hono'rius. 
The latter, who was only eleven years of age, was placed under the 
guardianship of the Vandal general Stil'icho, who had married a niece 
of the great emperor. Theodosius died at Milan, Jan. 17, A. D. 395. 


BECAPITULATIOIT. 

Julian administers Gaul and invades Germany with great energy and success. 
He incurs the jealousy of his cousin, and is declared emperor by his troops. 
Constantius dies, and Julian (A. D. 361-363), now universally acknowledged, 
restores paganism. He is killed in an Eastern campaign, and is succeeded by 
Jovian, who withdraws west of the Tigris. On the death of Jovian, A. D. 364, 
Valentinian (A. D. 364-375) is chosen by the court and army, and assigns the 
Eastern empire to his brother Valens. The general Theodosius gains important 
victories over Saxons, Piets, Scots, and Moors. Procopius usurps for a time the 
Eastern capital, and the empire is threatened by both Huns and Goths. In war 
with the latter, Valens is slain. Gratian (A. D. 375-383), son of Valentinian, confers 
the Eastern empire upon the younger Theodosius (A. D. 379-395). He is himself 
dethroned by Maximus, who becomes sovereign of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, and 
even expels the brother of Gratian (A. D. 387) from Italy. Theodosius destroys 
Maximus, and restores Valentinian II. as emperor of the West; but this young 
monarch is soon murdered by Arbogastes. Eugenius reigns two years, A. D. 392-394. 
Theodosius defeats him, and rules the united empire four months. He conciliates 
the Goths; abolishes pagan rites; persecutes heretics; does penance at Milan; 
divides the empire between Arcadius and Honorius. 


356 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


Fourth Period, A. D. 395-476. 

243. The empire east of the Adriatic continued more than a thousand 
years from the accession of Arcadius, and its records belong to Mediaeval 
History. From the death of the great Theodosius, the division of the 
two empires was complete. RufFnus, the minister of Arcadius, bore a 
mortal enmity to Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius; and for the sake 
of revenge, he let loose the Goths upon the Western empire. AParic, 
the Visi-Goth, was made master-general of the Eastern armies in Illyri- 
cum. At the same time, he was elected to be king of his own country¬ 
men, and it is uncertain in which character he invaded Italy, A. D. 
400-403. Honorius was driven from Milan, but Stilicho defeated the 
invader at Pollei/tia, and afterward at Verona, and persuaded him, by 
promises of lands for his followers, to withdraw from Italy. 

During the rejoicings at Rome on account of his retreat, an incident 
occurred which marks the progress of Christianity in the declining em¬ 
pire. Telem / achus, a monk, entered the arena of the Coliseum and 
attempted to separate the gladiators, protesting, in the name of Christ, 
against their inhuman combat. He was stoned to death by the crowd; 
but their remorse bestowed upon him the honors of a martyr; and the 
emperor, who was present, made a law abolishing forever the shedding 
of human blood for public sport. 

244. Honorius transferred his capital from Milan to the impregnable 
fortress among the marshes of Ravenna, which continued three centuries 
to be the seat of government for Italy. A fresh invasion from Germany, 
led by the pagan RadagaPsus, devastated western Italy. Gaul was, at 
the same time, overrun by a mingled horde of Vandals, Suevi, Alani, 
and Burgundians; and from that moment the Roman Empire may be 
said to have fallen in the countries beyond the Alps. The army in 
Britain revolted ; and after electing and murdering two emperors, set up 
Constantine, who led them into Gaul, defeated the German invaders, 
passed into Spain, and established a kind of sovereignty over the three 
western countries of Europe. 

Meanwhile, Stilicho was disgraced and slain, through the intrigues of 
his enemy, Olympius. While the barbarian auxiliaries in his army were 
lamenting his death, they were enraged by a massacre of their wives and 
children, who had been kept as hostages in the various cities of Italv. 
This insane act of cruelty sealed the fate of Rome. The barbarians, 
freed from either the duty or necessity of obeying Honorius, flocked to 
the camp of Alaric, in Illyricum, and urged him to invade Italy. The 
Visi-Goth had injuries of his own to avenge. He passed the Alps and 
the Po, and, after a rapid march, pitched his camp upon the Tiber. 
Rome was reduced to starvation. Thousands died of famine, and thou- 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


357 


^sands more from the pestilence which it occasioned. At length, Alaric 
accepted the terms offered by the Senate, and retired, upon the payment 
of an enormous ransom, A. D. 408. 

245. His brother-in-law, Adolphus, now joined him with a troop of 
Huns and Goths. Alaric offered peace to the court of Ravenna, on 
condition of receiving lands for his followers, between the Danube and 
the Adriatic. His demands being refused, he again marched upon Rome, 
and set up an emperor of his own choosing, in At'talus, prefect of the 
city. Ravenna was only saved from his attack by a reinforcement from 
Theodosius II., now emperor of the East. Africa was likewise delivered 
by the vigilance of Count Herac'lian. But Alaric was soon tired of his 
puppet-king. He deposed him, and again sought peace with Honorius. 
The treaty failed through the ill-will of Sarus, a Goth in the imperial 
service, who was a bitter enemy and rival of Alaric. 

The king of the Visi-Goths now turned a third time, and with relent¬ 
less rage, upon Rome. The Eternal City was taken, Aug. 10, A. D. 410, 
-and for six days was given up to the horrible scenes of murder and 
pillage. Though greatly reduced in power, Rome had never lost her 
dignity, or the wealth of her old patrician houses. These were now 
ransacked; gold, jewels, and silken garments, Grecian sculptures and 
paintings, and the choicest spoils of conquered countries, brought home 
in triumph by ancestors of the present families, went to enrich the 
Gothic and Scythic hordes, who were so ignorant of the value of their 
plunder, that exquisite vases were often divided by a stroke of a battle- 
ax, and their fragments distributed among the common soldiers. Only 
the churches and their property were respected, for Alaric declared that 
lie waged war with the Romans, and not with the apostles. 

246. At length the king of the Goths withdrew, laden with spoils, 
along the Appian Way, meditating the conquest of Sicily and Africa. 
Storms, however, destroyed his hastily constructed fleet, and a sudden 
death terminated his career of conquest. He was buried in the channel 
of the little river Busenti'nus, and his sepulcher was adorned by his 
followers with the treasures of Rome. Adolphus, his successor, made 
peace with Honorius, and received the hand of the imperial princess 
Placid'ia, who had been taken prisoner during the siege. Her bridal 
gifts consisted of the spoils of her country. Adolphus retired into Gaul, 
and then into Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visi-Goths, 
.as a dependency upon the Western empire. 

Constantine was driven out of Spain, and captured at Arles, by Con- 
stantius, who was rewarded for his distinguished services by a mairiage 
with Placidia, after the death of her Gothic husband, and by the impe¬ 
rial titles which he bore as the colleague of her brother. He reigned 
but seven months, and after his death Placidia quarreled with Honorius, 


358 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 




and took refuge with her nephew at Constantinople. In a few months 
the emperor of the West ended a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, 
A. D. 423. John, his secretary, usurped the throne; but Theodosius II. 
sent a fleet and army to enforce the claims of his cousin, the son of 
Placidia, and the troops in Ravenna were easily persuaded to surrender 
their upstart emperor. John was beheaded at Aquileia, A. D. 425. 

247. Valentinian III. was a child of six years. The Western empire 
was therefore placed under the regency of his mother, Placidia, who 
continued to rule it for a quarter of a century, while the military com¬ 
mand was held by Ae'tius and Boniface*. Unhappily, these two generals 
were enemies. The malicious falsehoods of Aetius led Boniface into re¬ 
bellion, and lost Africa to the empire. Gen'seric, king of the Vandals in 
Spain, willingly accepted the invitation of Boniface, and crossed the 
straits with 50,000 men. The Moors immediately joined his army; the 
Donatists* hailed him as their deliverer from persecution. 

Too late, Boniface discovered his mistake, and returned to his alle¬ 
giance. All Roman Africa, except Carthage, Cirta, and Hippo Regius, 
had passed over to the Vandals. Forces were sent from Constantinople 
to aid those of Italy; but the combined armies were defeated, and Bon¬ 
iface was compelled to abandon Africa, taking with him all the Roman 
inhabitants who were able to leave. The countries on the Danube had 
been ceded to the Eastern empire, in return for the aid of Theodosius II., 
in placing Valentinian III. upon his throne. Britain, unprotected by the 
Roman armies, had thrown off her allegiance, and had for forty years no 
government except that of the clergy, the nobles, and the magistrates 
of the towns. The Goths were settled permanently in south-western 
Gaul; the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north of the 
same country; and except a small tract in southern Gaul, the Western 
empire now included only Italy and the region of the western Alps. 

248. Aetius defended the Gallic province against the Visi-Goths on 
one side, and the Franks on the other, until the latter called in a new 
and more terrible ally than all previous invaders, in AFtila, king of the 
Huns. This savage chief was known to the terror-stricken world of his 
time, as the Scourge of God. He had subdued to his authority all the 
barbarians between the Baltic and the Euxine, the Rhine and the Volga, 
and his army of 700,000 men was officered by a host of subject kings. 
He had been for nine years ravaging the Eastern empire to the very 
walls of Constantinople, and had only retired upon the promise of an 
enormous annual tribute, and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds 
of gold. He now invaded Gaul, in behalf of a Frankish king who had 
been driven beyond the Rhine, and had sought his aid. 

A very numerous sect in Africa, opposed by Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 
and by an edict of Honorius. 


< 



HISTORY OF ROME. 


359 


Theod'oric, the son of Alaric, now king of the Visi-Gotlis, had allied 
himself with the Romans, and their united armies came up with Attila, 
just as he had effected the capture of Orleans by battering down its 
walls. The Hun instantly drew off his hordes from the plunder of the 
city, and retreated across the Seine to the plains about Chalons / , where 
his Scythian cavalry could operate to better advantage. Then followed 
one of the most memorable battles in the history of the world. The 
aged king Theodoric was slain, but the victory was gained by the valor 
of his subjects. Attila was driven to his circle of wagons, and only the 
darkness of night prevented the total destruction of his hosts. 

This was the last victory ever achieved in the name of the Western 
empire. It settled the great question, whether modern Europe should be 
Teuton or Tartar. The Goths were already Christian ; their rude energy 
was well adapted to the laws and institutions of civilized life. The 
Huns were savage, heathen, destructive; mighty to ravage and desolate, 
but never, in their greatest power and wealth, known to build and or¬ 
ganize a state. Most of what is admirable in European history would 
have been reversed by a different result of the battle of Chalons. 

249. Attila retreated beyond the Rhine. Two years later, he descended 
into north-eastern Italy, reduced Aquileia, Alti'num, Concordia, and Padua 
to heaps of ashes, and plundered Pavia and Milan. The fugitives from 
the old territory of the Veneti took refuge upon the hundred low islets 
at the head of tne Adriatic, and laid, in poverty and industry, the founda¬ 
tions of the Republic of Venice. While he was diverted from his threat¬ 
ened march upon Rome, by the intercessions of Pope Leo, Attila suddenly 
died, and his kingdom fell to pieces even more rapidly than it had been 
built up. Two of his sons perished in battle. Irnac, the youngest, 
retired into Scythia. Valentinian showed his relief from apprehension 
by murdering Aetius with his own hand. Having in many ways dis¬ 
gusted and offended his subjects, he was himself assassinated in March, 

A. D. 455. 

Maximus, his murderer, assumed the purple, but he continued in 
power less than three months. Eudox'ia, the widow of Valentinian, 
called in the aid of Genseric, the Vandal king of Afiica, who, com¬ 
manding the Mediterranean with his fleets, was only too eager for the 
spoils of Ttaly. The Romans, as soon as he had landed in Ostia, put to 
death their unworthy emperor; but this execution failed to appease the 
barbarian. Fourteen days the Eternal City was again given up to a 
pillage more unscrupulous than that of Alaric. The Vandal fleet, waiting 
at Ostia, was laden with all the wealth which the Goths had spared, and 
receiving on board the empress Eudoxia and her daughter, made a safe 
return to Carthage. 

250. The Romans were too much paralyzed to appoint a new sovereign. 


360 


ANCIENT HISTOB Y. 


When the news reached Gaul, Avi'tus, the general of the armies there, 
was proclaimed, through the influence of Theodoric II., and was ac¬ 
knowledged for more than a year throughout the Western empire. But, 
A. D. 456, Count Ric'imer, a Goth commanding the foreign auxiliaries 
in Italy, rebelled, and captured Avitus in a battle near Placentia. He 
set up Marjo'rian, whose talents and virtues revived some appearance 
of justice and energy in the government. A fleet was now prepared for 
the invasion of Africa, in the hope not only of retaliating upon Genseric 
for his plunder of Rome, but of stopping the ravages of the Vandal 
pirates upon the coasts of Italy. It was betrayed to the emissaries of 
Genseric, in the Spanish port of Cartliagena. 

Ricimer, by this time, was jealous of his protege, and, forcing him to 
resign, set up a new puppet in the person of Lib / ius Severus, in whose 
name he hoped to exercise the real power. But the nominal rule of 
Severus was confined to Italy, while, beyond the Alps, two Roman gen¬ 
erals— Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and iEgidfius in Gaul — possessed the 
real sovereignty, though without the imperial titles. The coasts of Italy, 
Spain, and Greece were continually harassed by the Vandals, and Ric¬ 
imer, two years after the death of Severus (A. D. 467), appealed to the 
court of Constantinople for aid against the common enemy, promising to 
accept any sovereign whom the emperor would appoint. 

251. Anthehnius, a Byzantine nobleman, was designated as emperor 
of the West, and received the allegiance of the Senate, the people, and 
the barbarian troops. The fidelity of Count Ricimer was thought to be 
secured by his marriage with the daughter of the new emperor. A for¬ 
midable attack upon the Vandals was made by the combined forces of 
the East and the West; but it failed through the weakness or treachery 
of Bas'ilis'cus, the Greek commander, who lost his immense fleet through 
the secret management of Genseric. The Vandals recovered Sardinia and 
became possessed of Sicily, whence they could ravage Italy more con¬ 
stantly than ever. 

The Goths, meanwhile, became dissatisfied with the foreign rule. 
Ricimer retired to Milan, where, in concert with his people, he openly 
revolted, marched with a Burgundian army to Rome, and forced the 
Senate to accept a new emperor in the person of Olyb'rius, A. D. 472. 
Anthemius was slain in the attack upon the city. Ricimer died forty 
days after his victory, bequeathing his power to his nephew, Gund'obald, 
a Burgundian. Olybrius died a month or two later, and Gundobald raised 
a soldier named GlvceTius to the vacant throne. The emperor of the 
East interfered again, and appointed Julius Nepos — a nephew of Mar¬ 
cellinus ot Dalmatia — who was accepted by the Romans and Gauls, 
Glycerius being consoled for the loss of his imperial titles by the safer 
and more peaceful dignity of Bishop of Salo'na. 


HISTORY OF ROME. 


361 


*252. Scarcely was Julius invested with the insignia of his rank, when 
he was driven from the country by a new sedition led by Ores'tes, 
master-general of the armies, who placed upon the throne his own son, 
Romulus Augustus. This last of the Western emperors, who bore, by a 
curious coincidence, the names of the two founders of Rome and the 
empire, was more commonly called Augus'tulus, in burlesque of the im¬ 
perial grandeur which mocked his youth and insignificance. 

The mercenaries demanded one-third of the lands of Italy as the 
reward of their services; and being refused, they sprang to arms again, 
slew Orestes, deposed Augustulus, and made their own chief, Odo'acer, 
king of Italy. The Roman Senate, in a letter to Zeno, emperor of the 
East, surrendered the claim of their country to imperial rank, consented 
to acknowledge Constantinople as the seat of government for the world, 
but requested that Odoacer, with the title of “ Patrician,” should be in¬ 
trusted with the diocese of Italy. 

With the fall of the Western empire, Ancient History ends. But the 
establishment of kingdoms by the northern nations marks the rise of a 
new era, which, through centuries of turbulence, will open into the 
varied and brilliant scenes of Modern History. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Alaric, invading Italy, is defeated by Stilicho. Gladiatorial combats are for¬ 
ever abolished at Rome. Honorius fixes his capital at Ravenna. Italy and Gaul 
are overrun by a pagan host. Constantine becomes emperor in the extreme West, 
A. D. 407-411. Death of Stilicho and massacre of Gothic women and children lead 
Alaric to a second invasion of Italy, A. D. 408-410. Rome is three times besieged, 
and finally given up to plunder for six days. Alaric dies, A. D. 410, and is suc¬ 
ceeded by Adolphus, who marries the sister of Honorius, and founds a Gothic 
kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul. Constantius, second husband of Placidia, 
reigns as colleague of Honorius, A. D. 421; and his son, Valentinian III., succeeds 
to the whole Western empire, A. D. 425-45.5. During the regency of Placidia, the 
general Boniface, deceived by Aetius, betrays Africa to the Vandals. Gaul is in¬ 
vaded by Attila, king of the Huns, who is defeated by Goths and Romans near 
Chalons, A. D. 451. He ravages northern Italy; and fugitives from cities which 
he destroys, found Venice on the Adriatic, A. D. 452. A alentinian III. is assassi¬ 
nated; and his widow, to avenge his death, calls in the Vandals, who plunder 
Rome fourteen days. Avitus (A. D. 455, 456) is proclaimed empeioi in Gaul. 
Count Ricimer rebels, and sets up first Marjorian (A. D. 457-461), then Sever us 
(A. D. 461-465), and finally applies for an emperor to the Eastern court, which 
appoints Anthemius (A. D. 467-472). Ricimer revolts again, and crowns Olybiius, 
who dies in a few months. Glycerius (A. D. 473, 4/4) soon exchanges the ciown 
for a miter, and Julius Nepos is installed as sovereign. Orestes sets up his own 
son, Romulus Augustus (A. D. 475, 476), the last Roman emperor of the West. 
Odoacer becomes king of Italy, and the Western empire is overthrown. 


362 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
. Book V. 


of 


the 


S 8 . 

9-11. 


12, 13. 
13-16. 

16. 

17, 18. 
19-21. 
22 . 

23-26. 

26-28. 

28-30. 

31. 


1. What three successive forms of government in ancient Rome? 

2. What races inhabited Italy?. 

3. Describe, severally, their origin, character, and institutions. 

4. Relate the traditions concerning the origin of Rome. 

5. Describe the acts and characters of the first three kings. 

6. What tribes and classes made up the Roman population under Tullus 

Hostilius?. 

7. What changes were made by Ancus Martius and Tarquinius Priscus? 

8. Describe the constitution under Servius Tullius. .... 

9. The reign of Tarquin the Proud. 

10. The chief divinities and religious festivals of the Romans. 

11. The oracles and modes of divination. 

12. The four sacred colleges. 

13. The ceremony of lustration. 

14. The government and coirdition of Rome after the expulsion 

of the kings.. 

16. The causes and effects of the first secession. 

16. The Cassian, Publilian, Terentilian, and Hortensian laws 

37, 40, 

17. Tell the story of Coriolanus. .... 

18. Of Cincinnatus and his son. 

19. Describe the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

20. What occasioned the second secession? . 

21. What changes in government resulted from it? 

22. Describe the Veientine War and its consequences. 

23. The invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 

24. The sack and siege of Rome. 

25. The condition of the Romans after the departure 

Gauls. 

26. The treason of Marcus Manlius. 

27. The Licinian laws. 

28. The final expulsion of the Gauls. 

29. The character of the Samnites. 

30. The First Samnite War. 

31. Relate the incidents of the Latin War. . 

32. Describe the Second Samnite War, and the reduction of the iEqui. 

33. The Third Samnite War, and the conquest of the Sabines. 

34. What nations were allied against Rome, B. C. 283? . 

35. Describe the campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy and Sicily. . 

36. What changes among the Romans followed their conquest of Italy 0 

37. Describe the origin and events of the First Punic War. . 

38. What part was taken by Rome in the affairs of Greece? 

39. Describe the conquest of the Gauls in northern Italy. 

40. The preparations by Carthage for the Second Punic War. 

41. The invasion of Italy by Hannibal. 

42. The fate of Hasdrubal. 

43. A Roman triumph.. 

44. The wars of Rome in the East and West.113, 114, 117. 

45. The last Punic War.115, 116. 


32-34. 
35, 36. 

43, 46, 78. 
42. 

44, 45. 
46-48. 
49-51. 
51-54. 
06, o<. 
57, 58. 
59, 60. 

61. 

62, 63. 
64, 65. 
66 . 

67, 68. 
69. 

70-72. 
73-75. 
76-78. 
79, 80. 

' 81-85. 
86, 87. 
89-94. 
95. 

96, 112. 
97-99. 
100-108. 
106, 107. 
109-111. 




















QUESTIONS FOE REVIEW. 


363 


130-136, 


1-153, 155, 


and Ac- 
. 169, 
. 181, 


46. Describe the conquest of Spain.. 

47. The condition of Rome after the foreign wars. 

48. The policy and death of Tiberius Gracchus. 

49. Of Scipio iEmilianus. Of Caius Gracchus. 

50. The Jugurthine Wars.. 

51. Tell the history of Marius. 

52. Describe the Roman slave-code, and its effects in Sicily. 

53. The dictatorship of Sulla. 

54. The rebellion of Sertorius.. 

55. The War of the Gladiators. 

56. Relate the history of Pompey. 1 

57. Describe the conspiracy of Catiline. 

58. Relate the history and designs of Ceesar. 

59. Of the second triumvirate.. 

60. Describe the three decisive battles of Pliarsalia, Philippi, 

tiura.. 

61. The city and empire of Rome under Augustus. 

62. The Roman operations in Germany. . 

63. The reign of Tiberius. 

64. Caligula. 

65. Claudius.. 

66 . Nero. ....... 

67. How many emperors during A. D. 69?. 

68 . Describe the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons. . 

69. The five good emperors. 

70. The reign of the praetorians. 

71. The history of Severus and his sons. . 

72. The contrasted characters of the two grandsons 

Maesa. . . . . . .• 

73. How many emperors in A. D. 238?. 

74. Describe the reigns of Philip and Decius. 

75 . The condition of Rome under Gallus. . 

76. What foreign invaders under Valerian? .... 

77. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. 

78. What able rulers delayed the fall of the empire? . 

79. Describe the reigns of Carus and his sons. 

80 . The new arrangement of the empire under Diocletian and 

his colleagues. 

81. The revolt of Carausius. 

82. The changes in the empire, from Diocletian’s abdic 

the sole reign of Constantine. .... 

83. The reorganization of the Roman world by Constantine. 

84. What change of religion marked this reign ? . . . 

85. What foreign nations obtained settlements within Roman 

ries?. 

86 . Tell the history of the sons of Constantine. 

87. Describe the character and career of Julian. 

88 . Who succeeded Jovian?. 

89. Describe the reign of Valentinian. Of Valens. . 

90 . The reign of Gratian and his brother. 

92 . The character and reign of Theodosius the Great. 

92. What was the comparative duration of the Eastern and Western 

empires?. 

93 . What barbarians invaded Italy during the reign ot Honorius? . 




of Julia 


bound a- 


118, 119. 
120 , 121 . 
122, 123. 
124-127. 
128-132. 
139-141. 
137. 

142-145. 
146, 147. 
148-150. 
166-170. 
154. 

156-177. 

177-180. 

179, 180. 

182, 185. 

183, 184. 
186-188. 

189. 

190. 

191-194. 
195, 196. 
197-199. 
200-206. 

207. 

208, 209. 

210-212. 
2P3, 214. 
215, 216. 
217. 

217. 

217. 

218, 219. 
220 . 


ation to 


221-227. 

223. 

227-230. 

230. 

231. 

232. 

234. 

235, 236. 

237. 

238, 239, 

240, 241. 

241, 242. 

243. 

243-246. 





















364 


ANCIENT HISTORY. 


94. Tell the history of Placidia. 246, 247 

95. The extent of the Western empire under Valentinian III. 247. 

96. Describe the career of Alaric, and the battle of Chalons. „ . 248, 249, 

97. The successive captures of Rome by Goths and Vandals. . 245, 249. 

98. How many sovereigns appointed by Count Ricimer? . 250, 251, 

99. How many by the court at Constantinople. . . „ o 0 251. 

100. Who was the last Roman emperor of the West? . . . r 252. 

101 . How many centuries had Rome existed from its foundation? 


LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED. 

The following works are recommended to the student who desires a more 
complete account of the nations of antiquity. 

Rawlinson’s History of the Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern 
World. 

Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 

Heeren’s Researches into the Politics, Commerce, etc., of the Ancient World. 
Niebuhr’s Lectures on Ancient History. 

Layard’s Nineveh. 

Milman’s History of the Jews. 

Stanley’s History of the Jewish Church. 

Josephus’s Jewish Antiquities. 

Herodotus. (Rawlinson’s translation, with illustrative essays, is incomparably 
the best.) 

Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, Anabasis, and Memorabilia. 

Grote’s History of Greece. 

Curtius’s History of Greece. 

Dr. Wm. Smith’s History of Greece, in a single volume. 

Bulwer’s Athens: its Rise and Fall. 

St. John’s The Hellenes: the Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece. 

Creasy’s Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. 

Niebuhr’s History of Rome. 

Arnold’s History of Rome. 

Mommsen’s History of Rome. 

Forsyth’s Life of Cicero. 

Selections from Cicero’s Orations. 

Caesar’s Commentaries. 

Life of Caesar, by Napoleon III. 

Merivale’s History of the Romans under the Empire. 

Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 



LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED. 


365 


Among Stories, Poems, and Dramas illustrative of Ancient Distort/, the follow¬ 
ing are recommended — the first three especially to the youngest readers. 

Kingsley’s “Heroes.” 

Hawthorne’s “Wonder-book” and “Tanglewood Tales.” 

Mrs. Child’s “ Philothea.” 

Becker’s “ Charicles ” and “Gallus.'* 

Macaulay’s “ Lays of Ancient Rome.” 

Ware’s “Zenobia,” “Julian,” and “Probus.” 

Mrs. Charles’s “ Victory of the Vanquished.” 

Kingsley’s “Hypatia.” 

Shakespeare's “ Coriolanus • “Julius Ceesar,” and “Antony and Cleopatra/- 


Among collections of Engravings, the following should especially he sought. 

Description of Egypt,” made by the Commission of savans who accompanied 
the French army in 1798. Commonly called “Napoleon’s Egypt.” 9 vols. 
Text, and 14 folio vols. Plates. 

Fergusson’s “Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored.’* 

Fergusson’s “Illustrated Handbook of Architecture,,” 

Botta’s “Monuments of Nineveh.” 

Layard’s “Monuments of Nineveh.” 

Penrose’s “Athenian Architecture.** 

Stuart’s u Antiquities of Athens.” 

Canina’s “ Edifices of Ancient Rome. * 



INDEX 


A 

Aalimes, Nefru-ari, 55. 

Aa'ron, 40. 

Abed'nego, 22. 

Abi'jam, 42. 

Abousir', 52. 

A'braham, 34. 

Ab'salom, 36. 

Aby'dus in Egypt, 53, 57. 

in Mysia, 88, 89, 177. 
Acade'mia, 150, 180. 

Acan'thus, 16S. 

Ac'arna'nia, 106, 161. 

Ac'cad, 17. 

Acer'bas, 66. 

Achae'menes, 73. 

brother of Xerxes, 88. 
son of Xerxes, 93. 
Achae'us, 211. 

Acha'ia, Acha'ians, 106, 115, 131, 
161, 227, 229. 

Achelo'us, 106. 

Acrop'olis, 131, 140, 158. 

Ac'tium, 105, 325. 

Adher'bal, 299, 300. 

Adiabe'ne, 339. 

Adiman'tus, 140. 

Adol'phus, 357. 

Adoni'jah, 38. 

JEge'an, 10, 105, 107, 109, 147, 148, 
175, 179, 348. 
iEgid'ius, 360. 

AEgi'na, 91, 107, 137, 138, 155. 
.E'gos-Pot'ami, 179. 

Ai'lia Capitoli'na, 336. 
iEmilia'nus, emperor, 342. 
j^Emil'ius, 268. 

L. Paulus, 289. 

L. Paulus, son of the 
preceding, 228. 

.Bne'as, 249. 
iEnia'nia, 106. 

■flSo'lia, ASo'lians, 108, 115, 131. 


JEqui, 263-265, 277. 
iEs'cliines, 197. 
iEs'chylus, 141. 

Ae'tius, 358, 359. 

iEto'lia, iEto'lians, 106, 226, 227, 
293. 

Africa, 48-70, 332, 333, 341, 342, 
346, 348, 353,357, 358. 
Agamem'non, 109. 

Age'nor, 110. '■ 

Agesila'us, 184-187, 190-195. 

A'gis, 165, 166,169, 173. 

Ag'ni, 81. 

Agric'ola, 334. 

Agrigen'tum, 67, 133, 284. 
Agrip'pa, 241, 325. 

Ag'rippi'na, wife of Germani- 
cus, 328, 330. 

Ag'rippi'na, wife of Claudius, 
331. 

A'hab, 32, 40, 42. 

Ahasue'rus, 88. 

A'haz, 43. 

Aliazi'ah, 42. 

Ahriman', 82. 

Ahu'ro Maz'dao, (Ormazd), 81, 
82. 

Aix, 298,302. 

Alani, 356. 

Al'aric, 356, 357. 

Alba Longa, 250. 

Albi'nus, 338. 

A Icas'u s, 131. 

Alcibi'ades, 16S-172, 175-178, 269. 
Alci'das, 165. 

Alcmaeon'ids, 129,136. 
Aleman'ni, 342, 346, 348, 351-353. 
Ale'ria, 2S4. 

Alexan'der Balas, 213, 214, 220. 
of Epirus. 276. 

Jannasus, 239. 

1. of Macedon, 142. 
the Great, 16, 99-102, 202- 
206, 217. 


Alexan'der of Phe'ras, 193,194. 

Seve'rus, 340, 341. 

Alex an'dra,239. 

Al'exandri'a in Egypt, 55, 204, 
216, 217,336, 342, 346. 
Al'exandri'a on the Jaxartes, 
204. 

Allec'tus, 346. 

Al'lia, 270. 

Alps, 245, 288, 302, 348. 

Alti'num, 359. 

Alyat'tes, 23. 

Am'alekites, 37. 

Ama'sis, 25, 60, 133. 

Amazi'ah, 42. 

Ambra'cia, 161.. 

Ambro'sius, 355. 

Amenepli'thes, 57. 
Ameuophe'um, 56. 

Ammenemes III., 54. 
Am'monites, 35-37. 

Am'on, 43. 

Amo'sis, 55, 62. 

Amphip'olis, 168,196, 201. 
Amu'lius, 249. 

Am'un, 58, 60, 63, 64, 77, 204. 
Am'unoph III., 56. 

Amy'clae, 118, 121. 

Amyn'tas, 188, 193. 

I., 201. 

Amyrtae'us, 93. 

Amy'tis, 93. 

Anac'reon, 131. 

Anacto'ria, 161. 

Ana'pus, 172. 

Anato'lia, 14, 29. 

Anaxag'oras, 152. 

A'nio, 249. 

An'nius, 308. 

Antal'cidas, 97, 187, 193. 
Anthe'mius, 360. 

Antig'onus, 207, 208. 

Doson, 225, 226. 

Gonatas, 224, 225. 


366 










Ant 


INDEX. 


Beh 


Antig'onus, King of the Jews, 
239. 

An'tioch, 210, 336, 340, 350. 
Anti'ochus I., Soter, 210, 224, 
230. 

11., Tlieos, 211. 

111., the Great, 211-213, 
237, 293. 

IV. , Epipli'anes, 213, 23S. 

V. , Eu'pator, 213. 

YI., 211. 

VII. , Side'tes, 214. 

VIII. , Grypus, 214, 215. 

IX. , Cyzice'nus, 214. 

X. , Eusebes, 215. 

XI. , 215. 

XII. , 215. 

XIII. , Asiaticus, 215. 
Hierax, 211, 230. 

Antip'ater, Regent of Macedo¬ 
nia, 207, 222. 

Antipater, King of Macedonia, 
223, 224. 

Antipater, the Idumaean, 239. 
Antipli'ilns, 217. 

Antoni'nus, M. Aurelius, 336, 
337. 

T. Aurelius, 336, 337. 
Anto'nius, 312. 

Marcus, 221,317, 323, 325. 
Lucius, 324. 

Apame'a, 210. 

Apel'les, 217. 

Apennines, 245-247, 288. 
Aphrodi'te, 111, 170. 

A'pis, 63, 77. 

Apol'lo, 91, 111, 114, 134. 
Apollo'nia, 188, 226. 

Apollo'nius, 217. 

Ap'ries, 45, 60. 

Apu'lia, Apulians, 247, 278 , 304. 
A'qufe Sextise (Aix) 297. 
Aquile'ia, 350, 354, 358, 359. 
Ara'bia, Arabians, 15, 19, 20, 42, 
54, 56. 

Ar'adus, 30. 

Arama'ti, 81. 

Ar'arat, 14, 29. 

Arbe'la, 100, 101, 204. 
Arbogas'tes, 354. 

Arca'dia, Arcadians, 106, 121- 
123, 192-194. 

Arca'dius, 355. 

Ar'chela'us I. of Macedon, 201. 
of Cappadocia, 234. 
son of Herod, 241. 
Ar'cliias, 189. 

Archida'mus, 151, 161-163. 
Arcliime'des, 289. 


A'res, 111, 138. 

I Argilius, 148. 

Ar'golis, 106. 

Argos, 97, 108, 118, 121, 123, 138, 
161, 169, 192. 

Ariara'thes IV., V., VI., 234. 
Ariobarza'nes I., 234. 
Ariovis'tus, 315. 

Aristag'oras, 84. 

Aristar'chus, 217. 

Aristi'des, S6, 136. 

Aristobu'lus, son of Hyrcanus, 
239, 313. 

Aristobu'lus, brother-in-law of 
Herod, 240. 

Aristode'mus, the Heraclid, 114, 
115. 

Aristode'mus, of Messenia,. 122. 

of Sparta, 144. 
Aristogi'ton, 129. 

Aristom'enes, 122, 151. 

J Aristoni'cus, 231. 

| Aristopli'anes, 217. 
j Ar'istot'le, 202. 

Arius, Arians, 349, 354. 
Arme'nia, Armenians, 14, 19, 
20, 232, 234, 235, 332, 336, 342, 

. 346, 350. 

Armin'ius, Herman, 327, 328. 
Arsa'ces II., 211. 

111., 212. 

VI., 236. 

Arsac'idas, 236. 

Ar'ses, 98, 99. 

Arsin'oe, Crocododilopolis, 63. 
port on the Red Sea, 21S. 
sister of Ptolemy II., 
218. 

sister of Ptolemy IV., 
219. 

Arre'tium, 279, 288. 

Arsi'tes, 99. 

Artaba'nus, 92. 

Ar'tabaza'nes, 88. 

Artaba'zus, 98,196. 
Artapher'nes, satrap, 85. 

nephew of Darius, 85,134. 
Ar'taxerx'es I., Longim'anus, 
S2, 92-94. 

11., Mnemon, 96-98, 187, 
193. 

111., Ochus, 98. 
founder of the Sassani- 

da\ 340. 

Artax'ias, 235. 

Ar'temis, 111, 134, 173, 202. 

A'sa, 40, 42, 58. 

As'culum, 281. 

Asia, 13-17, 48, 298. 

367 


Asia Minor, 14, 20, 29, 74, 203, 

208, 212, 218, 233, 306, 342, 343. 
As'kalon, 44, 60. 

Aspami'tres, 92. 

Assarana'dius, 20. 
As'shur-ba'ni-pal, 20 , 21 , 59. 
As'shur-da'nin-il II., 19. 
As'shur-emid-ilin, 21. 
As'shur-likh-khus, 19. 
Asshur-nazir-pal I., 19 , 40. 
Assyr'ia, 15, 21, 23-25, 41, 59, 336. 
Astar'te, Ashtaroth, 32, 44. 
Asty'ages, 24, 73-75. 

Athali'ali, 42. 

Athe'na, 111, 112, 128, 136. 
Athens, Athenians, 84-86, 91-98, 
108, 122, 129-197 , 222, 336 , 342. 
Athos, 85, 89. 

Ath'ribis, 63. 

Atlan'tic, 31, 6V, 315. 

At'las, 48. 

Attali'a, 231. 

At'talus, 357. 

1., 227, 230. 

11., Pliiladelphus, 231, 
Hi., Philometor, 231, 

At'tica, 86, 91, 92, 106, 124-133. 
At'tila, 358, 359. 

Aty'adaj, 29. 

Augus'tulus, Romulus Augus¬ 
tus, 361. 

Augus'tus, 326-328,332. 
Augustus, title, 326, 340, 346, 347. 
Aurelian, 343. 

Aure'olus, 343. 

Auso'nians, 277. 

Autro'nius, 312. 

Avi'tus, 360. 

Azari'ah, 42. 

B 

Ba'al, 32, 40, 42. 

Ba'aslia, 40, 42. 

Ba'bel, 17. 

Bab'ylon, Babylo'nia, Babylo¬ 
nians, 10, 15-29, 31, 32, 35, 43, 
45, 56, 74, 77, 88, 93, 204, 208, 

209, 213. 

Bac'tra (.Balkh), 13. 

Bac'tria, 13, 204, 211, 235. 
Bago'as, 98. 

Baltic, 69. 

Bar'ca, 50, 76. 

Bar'des, 78, 87. 

Barsi'ne, 205. 

Bas'ilis'cus, 360. 

Bata'vians, 334. 

Behistuu', 87. 











Bel 


INDEX. 


Con 


Belshaz'zar, 28. 

Beneven'tum, 277, 282. 
Benha'dad, 19, 40-42. 

Benjamin, 39, 42. 

Ber'eni'ce, 211, 220. 

Bero'sus, 9, 18. 

Bery'tus (Beirut) 30, 32. 

Bes'sus, 101, 204. 

Beth'el, 40. 

Beth-ho'ron, 35, 40-50, 228. 
Beth'shan, Scytliopolis, 44. 
Bi'as, 120. 

Bib'ulus, 314, 319. 

Bithy'nia, 14 , 210, 231, 232, 311. 
Bocclio'ris, 59. 

Boeo'tia, Boeo'tians, 91, 92, 100, 
114, 138, 155, 160, 101, 168, 
190. 

Bon'iface, 358, 

Boo'des, 284. 

Bor'sippa, 28. 

Bos'phorus, 197. 

Boulogne', 346. 

Bras'idas, 166, 168. 

Bren'nus, 223. 

Britain, 9, 133, 310, 334, 336, 343, 
340, 3.50, 352, 354, 350, 358. 
Britan'nicus, 331. 

Brundis'ium, 306 , 324. 
Brut'tium, Bruttians, 247, 279, 
2S0. 

Brutus, Decimus, 315. 

Marcus, 323, 324. 
Brygians, 85. 

Bubas'tis, city, 58. 

Pasht, 56. 

Buceph'ala, 205. 

Burgun'dians, 356, 358 
Bur'rhus, 331. 

Busenti'nus, 3.57. 

Byb'lus, 30, 155. 

Byr'sa, 60. 

Byzan'tium, 85, 133, 145, 158,196, 
202, 348, 349. 

C 

Oabi'ri, 32. 

Cadme'a, 108, 188, 

Cad'mus, 108. 

Ca^'lian Hill, 250, 251. 

Cfe'pio, 304. 

Caesar, title, 334, 335, 339, 340. 

344, 346, 350, 351. 

Caesar, Caius Julius, 313-323, 
L., 304. 

Caesare'a, 240. 

Cala'bria, 131, 247 
Ca'lah, 19. 


Caledonians, 339. 

Calig'ula, 241,330. 

Cal'lias, 191. 

Callim'achus, 217. 

Cal'neh, 17. 

Camby'ses, 60, 70-78. 

Camil'lus, 209, 271, 273. 

L. Furius, 273. 
Campagna, 240. 

Campa'nia, Campanians, 246, 
249. 

Ca'naan, 34, 35. 

Canaries, 67. 

Can'nae, 289, 290. 

Cape'na, 270. 

Cap'itoline, 250, 2.51, 2.53, 272, 273, 
292. 

Cappado'cia, 14, 29, 74, 89, 95, 
232-235. 

Cap'u a, 249, 306, 308. 

Car'acal'la, 339. 

Carau'sius, 346. 

Car'chemish, 25, 31, 44, 60. 

Caria, Carians, 14, 85, 196, 227. 
Cari'nus, 344. 

Carmel, 15, 40. 

Carthage, Carthaginians, 31, 
48, 50, 66-70, 76, 133, 281, 283- 
291, 293, 294, 299, 322, 358. 
Carthage'na, 66, 287, 359. 
Car'rhse, 310, 346. 

Ca'nis, 344. 

Cas'ca, 323. 

Cassan'der, 207. 

Cassius, Avidius, 337. 

Caius, 317, 324. 

Sp., 261, 262. 
Cas'sivelau'nus, 316. 

Castor, 200. 

Catali'na, L. Sergius, 310, 312. 
Cat'ana, 171, 172. 

Ca'to, censor, 293. 

Marcus, 316, 317, 321. 
Cat'ulus, 302. 

Cau'casus, 23. 

Cau'dine Forks, 277. 

Cau'nians, 85. 

Cecro'pia, 108. 

Ce'crops, 108. 

Cec'ryphali'a, 154. 

Ceplialle'nia, 107, 155, 101, 190. 
Cephis'sus, 114. 

Cerau'nus, 210, 217. 

Ce'res, 256. 

Ceylon, 31. 

Clia?rone'a, 156, 190. 

Chaice'don, 233, 343. 

Chalcid'ice, 133. 

Clial'cis, 155. 


Chahhe'a, 15, 17, 18. 

Chalons', 359. 

Char'icles, 173. 

Cliarila'us, 119. 

Cheops, 52. 

Cher'sone'sus, Thracian, 86, 127, 
190, 2 12. 

Chi'lo, 120. 

Chi'na, 16, 17. 

Cliin-nong, 17. 

Chi'os, 14, 95, 115, 161, 196, 227. 
Choras'mia, 13. 

! Chos'roes, 350. 

j Christians, 331, 336-338,342, 347 r 

352. 

Cic'ero, Marcus Tullius, 310, 
312, 323, 324. 

Cili'cia, 14, 29. 

Cim'bri, 301, 302. 

Ci'mon, 148-156. 

Cin'cinna'tus, 204, 265. 

Cin'eas, 280. 

Cin'na, 305, 306. 

Cin'nelada'nus, 25. 

| Cir'cus Max'imus, 252. 
i Cirrha', 121. 

Cir'ta, 358. 

Cithaj'ron, 106, 143. 

Claudius, Appius, 263, 266-268. 
Censor, 280, 283. 

Consul, 284. 

1., Emperor, 330, 331. 

11., Emperor, 343. 
father-in-law of Grac¬ 
chus, 297. 

Cleob'ulus, 126. 

Cleom'brotus, 143, 189-192. 
Cleom'enes, 130, 138. 

of Macedon, 225. 

Cleon, 162, 164, 166, 167. 
Cleopa'tra, last Queen of Mace- 
don, 208. 

last Queen of Egypt, 221, 
319, 320, 325. 

sister of Ptolemy Eupa- 
tor, 220. 
of Syria, 214. 

Clisthenes, 129, 130, 152. 
i Clitus, 205. 

| Clu'sium, 260. 
j Cly'pea, 284. 

I Co'drus, 124. 

Col'chis, 350. 

Colise'um, Flavian amphithea¬ 
ter, 234, 356. 

Com'modus, 338. 

Concor'dia, 359. 

Con'stantine I., 347-349. 

II., 250, 351. 


368 











Con 


INDEX. 


Eud 


Constantine III., 356, 357. 
Constans, 350. 

Constantinople, 348, 353, 361. 
Constan'tius, Chlorus, 346, 347. 

11., 350, 351. 

111., 357. 

Cop'tos, 55. 

CorPulo, 332. 

Corcy'ra, 107, 158, 161, 165, 171, 
190, 191. 

Corfin'ium, 304, 318. 

Cor'inth, 97, 106, 122, 126, 137, 
153, 159, 202, 208, 294, 322, 
342. 

CoriolaPus, Caius Marcius, 263, 
264. 

Cori'oli, 263. 

Corne'lia, 299. 

Corne'lius, 251, 307. 

Coronte'a, 157, 196. 

CorSica, 67-69, 247, 284, 286, 293. 
Corupe'dion, 210. 

Cos, 115, 196. 

Cotta, 233. 

Crassus, Licinius, 231. 

M. Licinius, triumvir, 
306, 309, 310, 314-316. 
Crat'erus, 207. 

Cra'this, 132. 

Crem'era, 262. 

Cresphon'tes, 114, 115. 

Crete, 54, 107, 109, 121, 125. 
CreuSis, 191. 

Crime'a, 232. 

Crispus, 348, 349. 

CritaPla, 89. 

Critias, 181. 

Croesus, 29, 30, 60, 74, 123. 
Croto'na, 131, 132. 

Ctes'iphon, 344 , 352. 

Cu'maj, 131,257. 

Cunax'a, 96. 

Cu'rio, 318. 

Cu'rius Denta'tus, 278, 279, 282. 
Cyax'ares, 21-25. 

Cyb'ele, 29. 

Cyc'lades, 107, 115, 161, 218. 
Cy'lon, 125. 

Cyn'oceph'alae, 194, 227. 
Cynop'olis, 63. 

Cyprus, 14 , 20, 85, 93, 98, 149, 156, 
208, 216, 219, 221. 

Cy'rena'ica, 218, 220. 

CyrePe, 50, 67, 76, 107, 133, 216, 
218. 

Cyrus, river, 14. 

the Great, 28, 30, 32, 73- 
75, 81. 

the Younger, 95, 96. 


Cythe'ra, 107, 167. 
Cyz'icus, 177, 233, 339, 342. 


D 

Da'cians, 334, 335. 

Damas'cus, 19, 33, 41, 43. 

Dan, 40. 

Dan'ai, 108. 

DaPaus, 108. 

Dan'iel, 23, 25, 26, 75. 

Dan'ube, 84, 133, 334, 336, 353, 
358. 

DariPs, Astyages, 75. 

1., the Great, 74, 77-78, 
134. 

11., Nothus, 95, 96. 

111., Codoman'nus, 99. 
Da'tis, 86, 134. 

Da'vid, 33, 37. 

De'a Di'a, 256. 

Deb'orah, 35. 

Deceb'alus, 335. 

Decius, Emperor, 341, 342. 

Publius, 275, 278. 
Dei'oces, 23. 

De'lium, 168. 

De'los, 117, 134, 148, 165. 

Del'phi, 91, 114, 119, 156, 196- 
257. 

Del'ta, 49, 53, 54 , 58, 59, 93. 
Demara'tus, 138, 147. 

Deme'ter, 111, 113, 138. 
Deme'trius, Poliorce'tes, 210, 
223. 

1., of Syria, 213. 

11., Nicator, 214. 

II., of Macedon, 224, 225. 
second son of Philip V., 
227. 

of Bactria, 235. 

Demos'thenes, general, 166, 167, 
173. 

orator, 197, 222. 
DenPiark, 9. 

Di'do, 33, 66. 

Diocle'tian, 344-347. 

Diod'otus, 235. 

DionySius, 189, 193. 

DionySus, 111, 113. 

DodoPa, 106, 113. 

Dolabel'la, 279. 

Domi'tian, 334, 335. 

Donatists, 358. 

Do'ris, Do'rians, 106, 114, 115, 
154. 

Doris'cus, 89. 

Dra'co, 124,126 


DruSus, Livius, 298. 

M. Livius, 304. 
step-son of Augustus, 
327, 328. 

son of Tiberius, 329. 
Dryopians, 114. 

Dyaus, 110. 

E 

Ecbat'ana, 23, 24 , 74. 

EcPomus, 284. 

E'domites, 37, 42. 

Ege'ria, 250. 

Egesta, 170, 171. 

Egypt, Egyptians, 20, 29, 48, 50- 
66, 75, 93, 95, 98, 153, 155, 204, 
208, 211, 213, 216-222, 333, 346, 
348, 354. 

Ei'on, 148. 

Elagab'alus, BassiaPus, 340. 
E'lath, 42. 

Elba, 69. 

Elephan'tine, 49, 50, 53, 54. 
EleuSis, Eleusinian, 113, 130, 
170, 171, 286. 

Eli'jah, 40. 

E'lis, Eleaus, 106, 121, 169, 192- 
194. 

El'tekeh, 20. 

E'os, 111. 

Epam'inon'das, 189-195. 
Eph'esus, 85, 115, 131, 342. 
Ephial'tes, 90. 

Ephraim, 34. 

Epicte'tus, 335. 

EpidamPus, 158. 

Epidau'ria, 106. 

Epimen'ides, 125. 

Epi'rus, 105. 

! Erastos'thenes, 217. 

E'rech, Orchoe, 17. 

ErecthePm, 158. 

1 Ere'tria, 85, 134. 
i ErinPyes, 112. 

ErytliPse, 95, 143. 

! E'ryx, 281. 

I Esarhad'don, 20, 25, 59. 

I Esdrae'lon, 44. 

Es'quiline Hill, 334. 

Ethba'al, 32, 40. 

Ethiopia, 20, 50, 54, 57. 

EtruPia, 245, 246, 262, 270, 278, 
282, 286. 

! Etrus'cans, 248, 271, 273, 277-280. 
j EubceS, 107, 134, 157, 196. 
Eu'clid, 217. 

Eucrat'ides, 235. 

Eudox'ia, 359. 


A. H.—24. 369 











Eug 


INDEX . 


Hip 


Euge'nius, 354. 

Eu'menes, 207. 

of Pergamus, 230. 

II., of Pergamus, 230. 
Eumen'ides, 112, 125. 
Eumol'pidse, 171, 176. 
Euphrates, 10, 13, 15, 25, 28, 340. 
Euro'pa, 110. 

Euro'tas, 107. 

Eurybi'ades, 140. 

Euryd'ice, 207. 

Eurym'edon, river, 149. 

general, 173. 
Eurys'thenes, 115, 118. 
Euthyde'mus, 212, 235. 
Evil-mer'odach, 27. 
E'zion-ge'ber, 38. 

Ez'ra, 93, 94. 

E 

Fa'bii, 262. 

Fa'bius Gur'ges, 278. 

Kaeso, 262. 

Max'imus, 278. 
Max'imus Cunctator, 
288. 

Fabri'cius, 280. 

Faioom', 54. 

Fale'rii, 270. 

Fau'nus, 257. 

Fetia'les, 259. 

Fir'mus, 353. 

Flamin f ius, consul, 288. 
Flamini'nus, 227. 

Flo'rian, 343, 344. 

Florus, Gess'ius, 241. 
For'monte'ra, 308. 

Fo'rum, 252, 254, 263, 305, 329, 
333. 

of Trajan, 335. 

Franks, 342, 346, 348, 351, 358. 
Frenta'ni, 247. 

Ful'via, 324. 

Ful'vius Fiac'cus, 299. 

G 

Gad, tribe, 34. 

prophet, 94. 

Gades, Cadiz, Kadesh, 31, 287. 
Gala'tia, 210, 224. 

Gal'ba, Emperor, 332, 333. 
Sertorius, 294. 
Sulpic'ius, 226, 227. 
Galep'sus, 168. 

Gale'rius, 347,348. 

Gal'ilee, 239, 241. 

Gallie'nus, 343. 

Gal'lus, Emperor, 342. 


Gal'lus Caesar, 350, 351. 

Gan'ges, 57. 

Garga'nus, 247. 

Gath, 37. 

Gaugame'la, 100. 

Gauls, 67, 210, 211, 223, 246, 269- 
273, 278-280, 286-288, 293, 301, 
302, 314-318, 339-344, 346, 350, 
354, 356, 357. 

Gau'zani'tis, 20. 

Ga'za, 204. 

Geba, 42. 

Gedro'sia, 205. 

Geu'seric, 358-360, 

Genu'cius, 262. 

Ger'izim, 94, 239. 

German'icus, 328-330. 

Germany, Germans, 301, 314-316, 
327-332, 334, 336, 340-342, 351. 
Ge'ta, 33S. 

Gib'eon, 34. 

Gid'eon, 35. 

Gilbo'a, 37. 

Gil'ead, 38. 

Gis'co, 284. 

Glau'cia, 303. 

Glyce'rius, 360. 

Golcon'da, 16. 

Goma'tes, 78, 87. 

Gordian, 341. 

Gor'dias, 29. 

Gor'dium, 29, 99. 

Goths, 342, 344, 34S, 349, 353, 356- 
360. 

Gracchus, Caius, 297-299. 
Sempronius, 293. 
Tiberius, 296, 297. 
Grani'cus, 99, 203. 

Gratian, 353, 354. 

Greece, Greeks, 10, 50, 74, 76, 83- 
102, 105-197, 202-205, 208, 209, 
212, 217, 218, 222-227, 247, 274, 
280, 285, 286, 306, 342. 
Gund'obald, 360. 

Gy'ges, 20. 

Gylip'pus, 172. 

Gyth'ium, 155. 

H 

Ha'des, 111. 

Ha'drian, 337. 

Hadriano'ple, 348, 353. 
Hadrume'tum, 50. 

Ha'lae, 154. 

Hal'icarnas'sus, 16, 19, 99, 115. 
Ha'lys, 14, 23, 74, 233. 

Ham, 10, 17, 216. 

Ha'matli, 33, 41. 


Hamil'car, 69, 70. 

Bar'ca, 11. 

Hau'nibal, the Great, 212, 226, 
285, 287-291. 
son of Gisco, 284 
Hatl'no, 69, 284. 

Ilarmo'dius, 129. 

Has'drubal, brother-in-law of 
Hannibal, 287. 
brother of Hannibal, 
287, 290. 

Haz'ael, 19, 40. 

Ha'zor, 35. 

Ile'bron, 37. 

Ilec'ate, 111. 

Hecatom'pylos, 212. 

Hel'icon, 106. 

Heliodo'rus, 213, 237. 

Heliop'olis, 55, 57. 

He'lios, 111. 

HelTas, 107. 

Hel'len, 116. 

Ilel'lespont', 88, 89, 92, 99, 128. 
Ilelve'tii, 315. 

Ilephces'tus, 111. 

He'ra, 111. 

Heracle'a, 280, 348. 
Heracleop'olis, 53, 54, 63. 
Herac'lian, 357. 

Her'acli'dse, 29, 115. 
Hercula'neum, 274, 334. 
Her'cules, 30, 32, 69, 108, 287. 
Herdo'nius, 264. 

Her'manric, 353. 

Her'mes, 62, 111. 

Hermi'onis, 106. 

Hermodo'rus, 265. 

Hermon, 15. 

Her'od Agrip'pa, 241. 

An'tipas, 241. 
the Great, 239-241. 
Herod'otus, 16, 23, 30. 

Hes'tia, 111. 

Hezeki'ah, 25, 43. 

Iliar'bas, 66. 

Hi'emp'sal, 299. 

Ili'ero, 284. 

Hieron'ymus, 289. 

Himalayas, 13, 16. 

Him'era, 70, 172. 

HimiFco, 69, 

Hin'dus, 81. 

Hippar'chus, the astronomer, 
217. 

son of Pisistratus, 129. 
Hip'pias, 86, 129, 135. 

Hip'po Re'gius, 358. 
Hippoc'rates, 16S. 

Hip'podrome, 217. 


370 













Hip 


INDEX. 


Luc 


Hip'pos, 50. 

Hi'ram, King of Tyre, 38. 

architect of the Temple, 
39. 

Histne'a, 157. 

Histife'us, 84. 

Hit (Is) 56. 

Hit'tites, 33. 

Ho'mer, 109, 110, 128. 

Ilono'rius, 355-357. 

Hor'ace, 328. 

Hora'tius, 267, 268. 

Horten'sius, 279. 

Ilo'rus, 56, 62. 

Hosh'ea, 41. 

Hostilia'nus, 342. 

Hydar'nes, 139. 

Hydas'pes, 205. 

Hy'drea, 107. 

Hyk'sos, 53-55. 

Hymet'tus, 106. 

Hypha'sis, Sutlej, 205. 
Hyrca'nus, John, 239. 

239, 311. 

Hystas'pes, 76, 79. 

son of Darius, 93. 


I 

Iapyg'ia, lapygians, 247, 248. 
Ichthyopli'agi, 76. 

Icil'ius, 267. 

Iddo, 94. 

Idume'a, 239. 

Iliad, 109. 

Illyr'icum, Illyrians, 114, 201, 
314, 344 , 348, 350, 354, 356. 
Im'bros, 107, 136. 

I'narus, 93, 153. 

India, 9, 10, 16, 57, 83, 205, 212. 
In'dra, 81. 

In'dus, 13, 14, 16, 83, 205. 
Interam'na, 342. 

Io'nia, Ionians, 84, 85, 115, 134, 
144, 145. 

Iphic'rates, 97. 

Ipsambul, 57. 

Ip'sus, 208, 209. 

I'ra, 122, 123. 

I'ran, 10. 
l'ris, 111. 

Irnac, 359. 

Isag'oras, 130. 

Isaiah, 75. 

Ishbo'sheth, 57. 

I'sis, 51, 62. 

Is'rael, Israelites, 19, 34-45. 
Is'sus, 100, 203, 338. 


Isto'ne, 165. 

Is'tria, 133. 

Italy, Italians, 10, 67, 245-248, 
304-306, 342, 346-35(1, 354, 356, 
358. 

Itli'aca, 107. 

Ith'amar, 20. 

Itho'me, 122, 151, 153-155. 

Iva Lush, (Hu-likh-khus), 19. 
Ivi'ca, 308. 

J 

Ja'biu, 35. 

Ja'cob, 34. 

Jad'dua, 204. 

Janic'ulum, 252, 268, 279. 

Janus, 256, 325. 

Japheth, 10, 216. 

Ja'sher, 94. 

Ja'son, 192. 

Jaxar'tes, 13, 204. 

Jeb'usites, 37. 

Jeho'ahaz, 40. 

Jehoi'achin, 44. 

Jehoi'ada, 42. 

Jehoi'akim, 25, 44. 

Jeho'ram, King of Israel, 40. 

King of Judah, 42. 
Jehosh'aphat, 42. 

Je'hu, 40. 

Jeremi'ah, 44. 

Jerobo'am I., 39, 40, 42, 58. 

II., 41. 

Jerusalem, 25, 26, 37, 58, 75, 93, 
94, 237-241, 334, 336, 352. 
Jez'ebel, 40. 

Jo'asli, 40, 42. 

John, usurper, 358. 

Jon'athan, 37. 

Jor'dan, 15, 34. 

Jo'seph, 34, 64. 

Jose'phus; 58. 

Josh'ua, 34, 3.5. 

Josi'ah, 43, 44. 

Jo'vian, 352. 

Ju'ba, 318, 319. 

Judse'a, 34-45, 58, 214, 237-241, 
332, 334, 336. 

Ju'dah, 19, 20, 37, 39, 42, 73. 
Ju'das Maccabae'us, 213, 238. 
Jugur'tha, 299, 300, 301. 

Julia, daughter of Oassar, 317. 

Meesa, 339. 

Julian, 350-352. 

Julia'nus, Didius, 338. 

Julius Cajsar, 221, 313-323. 
Ju'lius Ne'pos, 360,361. 

Juno, 253. 


Juno'nia, 298. 

Ju'piter, 253, 255, 256, 337. 
Justin Martyr, 337. 

Justi'na, 354. 

K 

Kar'nac, 55-57. 
j Ker'man, 15. 

Ivhorsahad', 20. 
Kirjath-je'arim, 37. 

Kish, 36. 

Koko'me, 52. 

Kotro'ni, 86. 

Kro'nos, 69. 

L 

Lab'alum, 172. 
La'borosoar'chod, 27. 
Lab'yrinth, 54. 

La'cedae'mon, 106, 118-123. 
La'cedaemo'nius, 159. 

Laco'nia, 106, 118-123. 
Lam'aclius, 170-172. 

Laod'ice'a, 210. 

Laom'edon, 237. 

La'res, 257. 

Lars Por'sena, 260. 

La'tium, Latins, 246, 248, 250, 
260, 273, 276. 

Lau'rium, 137, 162. 

Lau'tula?, 277. 

Leb'anon, 15, 75. 

Leb'edos, 115. 

Lechaj'um, 106, 193. 

Lem'nos, 107, 136. 

Leo, 359. 

Leon'idas, 90, 139. 

Leonti'ni, 170. 

Lep'idus, embassador, 219. 

triumvir, 324, 325. 
Lep'tis, 50. 

Les'bos, 14 , 95, 115, 161, 164, 165. 
Leuca'dia, 107, 161. 

Leuc'tra, 191. 

Levant', 14. 

Le'vites, 34. 

Libya, Libyans, 49, 50, 56, 66,67, 
69, 74. 

Licin'ius, C. Sto'lo, 272, 273. 

emperor, 348. 

Ligu'ria, 245. 

Lilybae'um, 281. 

Lip'ara, 2S4. 

Locri, 115, 132, 281, 282. 

Locris, 106, 155, 157, 161, 196. 
Luca'ni, 304. 


371 







Luc 


INDEX. 


Mys 


Luca'nia, Luca'uians, 247, 278, 
279, 280. 

Lu'ceres, 251, 253. 

Lucul'lus, 233, 311. 

Lugdu'num, 339. 

Lusitania, Lusitanians, 294, 
308, 333. 

Luta'tius, consul, B. C. 242, 285. 

consul with Marius, 302. 
Lux'or, 56. 

Ly'cia, 14, 29. 

Lycome'des, 193. 

Lyc'ophron, 196. 

Lycop'olis, 63. 

Lycurgus, of Sparta, 119-121, 
225. 

of Athens, 127, 128. 
Ly'cus, 101. 

Lydia, Lydians, 14, 20, 23, 24, 28, 
29, 60-74, 95, 112, 211, 231. 
L.v'ons, 337, 354. 

Lysan'der, 95, 178-182, 1S4. 
Lys'ias, 213. 

Lysim'achus, 208, 210, 223, 230. 


M 

Maccabse'us, Judas, 213, 238. 
Jonathan, 238. 

Simon, 238. 

Macedon, Macedonians, 85, 99, 
159, 163, 188, 193, 201-241, 306, 
346. 

Machas'rus, 239. 

Macra, 246, 282. 

Macri'nus, 339, 340. 

Macro'bii, 76. 

Madeira, 67. 

Ma'gas, 218. 

Ma'gi, 24 , 78,79, 82, 87. 

Mag'na Gra'cia, 107, 132. 
Magnen'tius, 350. 

Magne'sia, 196, 227, 293. 

Ma'go, 68. 

Ma'lis, 106. 

Mam'ertine Prison, 252, 278. 
Mam'ertines, 281, 284. 

Manas'seh, 34, 94. 

Man'etho, 51, 52, 58, 217. 
Manil'ius, 311. 

Ma'nis, 109. 

Man'Iius, Consuls, 275, 284, 285. j 
Marcus, 270-272. 

Titus, 275. 

Man'nus, 109. 

Mantine'a, Mantine'ans, 169, 
192, 194, 226. 

Maracan'da, 13. 


Ma'rathon, 86, 128, 135-137. 
Marcelli'nus, 360. 

Marcel'lus, 289. 

Marcianop'olis, 353. 
Mardo'nius, 85, 92, 134, 142-144. 
Mare'shali, 58. 

Mar'gus, 344. 

Mariamne, 240. 

Ma'rius, consul, 300-306, 313. 

the Younger, 306. 
Marjo'rian, 360. 

Mar'ruci'ni, 246, 304. 

Mars, 249, 256. 

Mar'si, 246, 304. 

Martius, Ancus, 251-253. 
Masis'tius, 143. 

Massagetas, 75. 

Massilia (Marseilles), 107, 131, 
132, 318, 348. 

Mas'sinis'sa, 291, 299, 300. 

| Massi'va, 3o0. 

Mattatlii'as, 213, 238. 
Maurita'nia, 48, 67, 300. 

, Mausole'um, 217. 

Mauso'lus, 196. 

' Maxen'tius, 347, 31S. 

Maxim'iau, 346-348. 

Max'imiu, 341. 

emperor in the East, 
347, 34S. 

Maximus, 354. 

. contemporary of Theo¬ 
dosius the Great, 355. 
murderer of Valentin- 
ian III., 359. 

Media, 14, 20-24, 41, 73, 74, 204, 
211 . 

Megaby'zus, 93. 

Megacles, 127-129. 

Megalop'olis, 192. 

Meg'ara, 153, 154, 161. 

Meg'arid, 157. 

Meg'aris, 106, 154, 157. 

Megid'do, 44. 

Mel'carth, 32. 

Mel'pum, 269. 

Mem'non, 56. 

general, 99, 203. 
Memno'nium, 57. 

Mem'phis, 49, 51-55, 60, 76, 77, 93, 
155. 

Men'ahem, 41. 

Men'cheres, 52. 

Men'des, 63. 

Menela'us, 109. 

Me'nes, 51, 109. 

Men'tor, 98. 

Me'nu, 109. 

Merm'nadse, 29. 

379 


Mer'odach-bal'adan, 20, 25. 
Mer'oe, 50. 

Me'rom, 35. 

Mesopotamia, 15, 336, 344. 
Mes'plira, Amen-set, 55. 
Mes'sali'na, 330. 

Messa'na, 281, 284. 

Messa'pia, Calabria, 247. 
Messe'ne, 193. 

Messe'uia, Messenians, 106, 115 
121-123, 151, 155, 166, 167, 192 
Metau'rus, 290. 

Metellus, proconsul, 285. 

Numidicus, 300, 301. 
Pius, 306, 308. 
Methym'na, 165. 

Meuse, 351. 

Mich'mash, 37. 

Micip'sa, 299. 

Mi'das, 29. 

Milan, 273, 343, 347, 349, 351, 352, 
355, 359, 360. 

Mile'sians, 158. 

Miletus, 84, 85, 115, 131. 

Milo, 132. 

Milti'ades, 86, 127, 135, 136, 148 . 
Milvian Bridge, 348. 

Miner'va, 253, 255. 

Mi'nos, 109. 

Mintur'nse, 305. 

Mis'raim, 51. 

Mississippi, 9. 

Mith'ra, 81. 

Mith'rida'tes I., 232. 

III. , 232. 

IV. , 232. 

V. , the Great, 233, 304, 
310. 

Miz'peli, 42. 

Mnes'theus, 343. 

Mne'vis (Uenephes), 51, 63. 
Mo'ab, Moabites, 34, 37, 40. 
Moe'ris, 54. 

Moe'sia, 341-343, 346. 

Mo'lo, 211. 

Moors, 346, 35:5, 358. 

Mori'ah, 38. 

Mo'ses, 34 , 35, 43. 

Mum'mius, L., 294. 

Mun'da, 322. 

Mure'na, 233. 

Mu'tina, 324. 

Myc'ale, 92, 115, 145. 

Myce'nae, 106. 

My'lm, 284. 

Myrci'nus, S4. 

Myron'ides, 154. 

Mysia, 14, 99, 230. 

Mysore', 16. 











Myt 


INDEX 


Phi 


Mytile'ne, 115, 164. 

N 

Nabona'dius, 26-28, 72. 
Nabonas'sar, 19, 24. 
Nabopolas'sar, 22, 24, 25. 
Na'dab, 40. 

Nak'slii-Rus'tam, 87. 

Naples, 131. 

Nar'bo Mar'tius, Narbonne', 
298. 

Nar'ses, 346. 

Naucli'des, 160. 

Naucra'tis, 50, 125, 133. 
Nau'lochus, 325. 

Naupac'tus, 155, 161. 

Nax'os, 133, 134, 149, 190. 
Neap'olis, 274. 

Near'chus, 205. 

Nebuchadnez'zar, 22, 25-27, 31, 
44, 45, 60. 

Neb'uzar-a'dan, 26. 

Ne'cho, 31, 44, 60. 

Nectan'abis, 195. 

Nectanebo, 98. 

Nehemi'ah, 94. 

Nem'esis, 136. 

Nepe'te, 270. 

Nereglis'sar, 27. 

Nereids, 111. 

Ne'reus, 32. 

Ne'ro, consul, 290. 

emperor, 332-334. 

Ner'va, 335. 

Nicm'a, 205, 349. 

Nica'nor, 238. 

Nic'ias, 167, 169-175. 

Nicome'des, Greek captain, 154, 
155. 

Nicome'des I., 210. 

11., 231. 

111., 232. 

Nicome'dia, 231, 347. 

Nicop'olis, 311, 320. 

Ni'ger, 48, 339. 

Nile, 48, 51,155, 320. 

Nim'rod, 17. 

Nin'eveh, 10, 17, 19-21, 25, 56. 
Ni'nus, 19. 

Nis'ibis, 339, 350. 

Nor'icum, 346. 

Nu'bia, 49, 57, 74. 

Nu'ma Pompil'ius, 250, 258. 
Numan'tia, 295. 

Nume'rian, 344. 

Numidia, Numidians, 67, 291, 
288, 299, 300. 

Numitor, 249. 


Ocean'ids, 111. 

O'chus, 95, 98. 

Octavia'nus, Augustus, 324- 
326, 328. 

Octavius, consul, 305. 

tribune, 297. 

Odena'tus, 343. 

Odo'acer, 361. 

(Eno'phyt^, 155. 

(Enus'sse, 107. 

Olyb'rius, 360. 

Olym'pia, 113, 194. 

Olym'pias, 207. 

Olym'piodo'rus, 143. 

Olym'pius, 356. 

Olym'pus, 110. 

Olyn'thus, 159, 188, 197. 

Om'bos, 63. 

Om'ri, 40. 

Onomar'chus, 196. 

Opim'ius, 300. 

Orchom'enus, 156, 190, 196. 
Ores'tes, 361. 

Orkneys, 352. 

Orleans, 359. 

Ormazd, 81-83, 87. 

Oron'tes, 15. 

Osarsiph, Moses, 58. 

Os'cans, 248, 277. 

Osi'ris, 49, 51, 62. 

Osor'kon II., 58. 

Osortas'idae, 54. 

Os'tia, 252, 283, 305, 359. 
Ostro-Gotks, 353, 354. 

Otho, 333. 

Ovid, 328. 

Oxyar'tes, 205. 

P 

Pacto'lus, 14. 

Pa'dua, 359. 

Pal'atine Hill, 251, 326. 
Pal'estine, 15, 20, 25, 34-45, 211, 
216, 311, 336. 

Palmy'ra, 15, 343. 

Pamphyl'ia, 14. 

Pa'neas, 212. 

Panio'nium, 115. 

Panno'nia, 338, 341, 346. 
Pano'peus, 91. 

Panor'mus, Palermo, 284, 2S5. 
Paphlago'nia, 14. 

Papir'ius, 270. 

Papre'mis, 93. 

Paris, son of Priam, 109. 

Paris, city, 351, 354. 


Parme'nio, 205. 

Parnas'sus, 91, 106. 

Pa'ros, 136. 

Par'thenoir, 158. 

Par'thia, Parthians, 211, 212, 
235-241, 316, 317, 335, 337, 339. 
340. 

Parysa'tis, 95, 96. 

Pasar'gadse, 71. 

Pate'na, 33. 

Pausa'nias, 143, 144. 

Pa'via, 359. 

Pelas'gia, Pejasgi, 107, 248. 
Pelig'ni, 246, 304. 

Pelop'idas, 189-194. 
Pelo'ponne'sus, 91, 108, 114, 118, 
161. 

Pe'lops, 108. 

Pelu'sium, 53, 60, 219. 

Pene'us, 114. 

Perdic'cas, general, 206, 207, 234. 

11., 159. 

111., 201. 

Peren'nis, 338. 

Perian'der, 126. 

Per'icles, 151-162. 

Perin'thus, 202. 

Per'gamus, 211, 227, 230, 231, 297. 
Perper'na, 304. 

Perseph'one, 113. 

Persep'olis, 204. 

Per'seus, 227 , 228. 

Per'sia, 14, 60, 71-102, 211, 340, 
350, 352. 

Persian Gulf, 17, 72. 

Per'tinax, 338. 

Pe'tra, 42. 

Pha'on, 332. 

Pha'raoo, Phrah, 20, 64. 

-hophra, A pries, 60. 
-necho, 25. 

Pharnaba'zus, 95, 97, 186. 
Pliar'naces, 232, 320. 

Pba'ros, 217. 

Pharsa'lia, 319. 

Pbayl'lus, 196.. 

Phid'ias, 135, 158. 

Phi'don, 118. 

Philadelphia, 231. 

Pbiletfe'rus, 230. 

Philip II. of Macedon, 98, 19£ 
196, 197, 201, 202. 
Arrhidse'us, 207. 

IV. , 222. 

V. , 212, 225-228. 

Herod, 241. 

of Syria, 213. 
emperor, 341. 

Philip'pi, 201, 324. 






Phi 

Philip'pus, of Thebes, 189. 
Philis'tines, 19, 35-37, 54. 
Philome'lus, 196. 

Philopoe'men, 226, 227. 

Philo'tas, 205. 

Phocte'a, 131. 

Pho'cis, 106, 155, 157, 161, 196,202. 
Phce'bidas, 188. 

Phoeni'cia, Phoenicians, 15, 16, 
20, 25, 30-32, 50, 76, 98, 204, 
216, 311. 

Phor'mio, 163. 

Phry'gia, 14, 29, 95, 210, 232. 
Phtlia, 62. » 

Phy'lidas, 189. 

Pi'centi'ni, 304. 

Pice'num, 216, 282. 

Piets, 352. 

Pilate, Pontius, 241. 

Pin'dar, 203. 

Pin'dus, 105, 106. 

Piras'us, 147, 154, 180. 

Pi'sham, 58. 

Pisid'ia, 96. 

Pisis'tratus, 127, 128. 

Pi'so, 312. 

adopted son of Galba, 
333. 

Pi'thom, 55. 

Pit'tacus, 126. 

Placen'tia, 290, 360. 

Placid'ia, 357, 358. 

Platse'a, 91, 92, 135, 138, 160-163, 
188. 

Pla'to, 150, 321. 

Plemmyr'ium, 172. 

Plin'y, 335. 

Plisto'anax, 157. 

Plu'tarch, 335. 

Po, 245, 269. 

Pollen'tia, 256. 

Pollux, 260. 

Poly carp, 336. 

Polyc'rates, 60. 

Polydec'tes, 119. 

Polysper'chon, 207. 

Pompeii, 274, 334. 

Pompei'us, Qu., 295. 

Pompey, Cneius, the Great, 215, 
233, 239, 306-320. 

Cneius, the Younger, 
322. 

Sextus, 322, 324 , 325. 
Pontius, 277, 278. 

Pontus, 232-234, 311, 320. 

marine god, 32. 

Porus, 205. 

Posi'don, 32, 111, 115. 
Pos'thumus, 343. 


INDEX. 

Postu'mius, 304. 

Pothi'nus, 319. 

Potidse'a, 133, 159, 162, 201. 
Prasnes'te, 306. 

Prexas'pes, 78. 

Priam, 109, 249. 

Pro'bus, 343, 344. 

Pro'cles, 115, 118. 

Proconne'sus, 14. 

Proco'pius, 353. 

Propylae'a, 158. 

Proser'pina, 282. 

Prosopi'tis, 155. 

Pru'sias I. and II., 231. 
Psammen'itus, 60, 76. 
Psammet'iclms, 59, 60, 133. 
Psyt'tali'a, 142. 

Ptolemy, Ceraunus, 210. 

1., Soter, 207, 208, 216, 
217, 237. 

11., Pliiladelphus, 211, 

217, 218. 

111., Euer'getes, 211, 

218, 219. 

IV. , Pliilop'ator, 219, 
237. 

V. , Epipli'anes, 212, 219. 

VI. , Phil'ome'tor, 219, 

220 . 

VII. , Eu'pator, 220. 

VIII. , Lath'yrus, 219, 

220 . 

IX. , Alexander, 220. 

X. , 221. 

XI. , Aule'tes, 221. 

XII. , 219, 221. 

Phys'con, 219, 220. 

Pub'lius De'cius, 275. 

Pul, IS, 41. 

Punjab', 83, 205. 

Pyd'na, 201. 

Pygma'lion, 31. 

Py'los, 166, 167, 170. 

Pyr'amids, 53. 

Pyr'rhus, 223, 224 , 280-282. 
Pythag'oras, 132. 

Pyth'eas, 133. 

Q 

Qua'di, 337. 

Quinc'tius,Kieso, 264. 

Quirinal Hill, 250, 251, 254, 257. 
Quiri'nus, 250, 256. 

R 

Raam'ses, 55. 

Ra'mali, 40, 42. 


Sap 

Ram'eses I., 56. 

11., 56, 57. 

111., 58. 

Ramesse'um, 57. 

Ram'lies, 251, 253. 

Rapli'ia, 59, 211, 219. 

Ras'ena, (Etruscans), 248. 
Ratho'tis, Resitot, 56. 

Raven'na, 356, 357. 

Regil'lus, 260 . 

Reg'ulus, 284 , 285. 

his son, 286. 

Rehobo'am, 39, 42, 58. 

Re'mus, 249, 250. 

Reu'ben, 34. 

Rliadagai'sus, 355. 

Rhae'tia, 248. 

Rhe'gium, 123, 132. 

Rheims, 352. 

Rhine, 315, 316, 328, 329, 335, 352. 
Rhodes, 115, 196, 208, 227. 

Rhone, 301, 314, 315. 

Ric'imer, 359. 

Roma'nus, 353. 

Rome, 68, 212, 220, 245-361. 
Rom'ulus, 249, 250, 256. 

Roxa'na, 205. 

Ru'bicon, 282, 318. 

Rufi'nus, 356. 

Ru'fus, tribune, 304. 
general, 332. 

S 

Saba'co I and II., 59. 

Saba'zius, 29. 

Sa'bines, 246-248, 250, 251, 268, 
278, 279. 

Sac'ripor'tus, 306. 

Sagun'tum, 287. 

Salia'ra, 48. 

Sa'is, 59, 63. 

Salae'thus, 164. 

Sal'amis, 91-93, 107, 127, 138, 141, 
142. 

in Cyprus, 156, 208. 
Sama'ria, 19, 20, 41, 94. 
Sammura'mit, (Semir'amis), 19. 
87. 

Sam'nium, Sam'nites, 247, 274- 
280, 282, 304, 306. 

Sa'mos, 14 , 60, 97, 115, 158, 227. 
Samothra'ce, 107. 

Sam'son, 35. 

Sam'uel, 36. 

Sanballat, 94. 

Sa'os-duchinus, 25. 

Sa'por, 342. 

Sap'pho, 131. 














Sar 


INDEX. 


Tha 


Sar'acens, 21. 

Sardinia, 67, 247, 284, 286, 293, 
360. 

Sar'dis, 14, 72, 85, 89. 

Sargon, 20, 22, 25. 

Sarma'tians, 344, 349. 

Sa'rus, 357. 

Sassan'khe, 340, 342 
Sasy'chis, Mares-sesorcheres, 
52. 

Saturni'nus, 303. 

Saul, 35, 37. 

Sax'ons, 352. 

Scio'ne, 168. 

Scipio, iEmilianus, 294, 295, 297. 
Africanus, 212, 290, 291, 
299. 

Asiaticus, 212. 

(consul B. C. 260), 284. 
(consul B. O. 218), 288, 
289. 

Scots, 352. 

Scribo'nius, 332. 

Scuta'ri, 348. 

Scy'ros, 149. 

Scyth'ia, Scythians, 13, 21, 23, 
44, 83, 84, 336, 359. 
Scythop'olis, 44. 

Seja'nus, 329. 

Sele'ne, 111. 

Seleuci'a, 210. 215, 344 
Seleu'cidae, 209-215. 

Seleu'cus I., 208-210. 

11., Callin'icus, 211. 

111., Ceraunus, 211. 

IV. , Pliilop'ator, 213, 
237. 

V. , 214. 

VI. , Epiph'anes, 215. 
Seli'nus, 170, 171. 

Sella'sia, 225. 

Semir'amis, Sammura'mit, 19, 
87. 

Se'na, 290. 

Sen'eca, 331. 

Sennach'erib, 20, 21, 43, 49. 
Sen'neh, 54. 

Senti'num, 27S. s 
Serape'u m, 63. 

Sera'pis, 217, 354. 

Seri'ca, 16. 

Se'rosh, Sraosha, 82. 

Serto'rius, 307, 308. 
Sei </ vilia , ’nus, 295. 

Ser'vius Tul'lius, 253, 254, 259. 
Sesonchosis, 52. 

Sesor-cheres, 52. 

Sesortasen I., II., and III., 54. 
Sesos'tris, 52, 56. 


[ Ses'tus, 146, 196. 

| Seth, 62. 

Se'thos II., 58. 

Se'ti, 56. 

Seve'rus, 338, 347. 

Sex'tius, L., 272, 273. 

Sex'tus, Tarquinius, 255. 
Shalmane'ser, I., 18. 

II., 19, 22, 31, 41. 

IV., 20. 

Slie'chem, 40. 

Shem, 10, 216. 

Shi'loli, 35. 

Shi'shak (Sheshonk), 40, 42, 58. 
Sic'ily, 67, 68, 132, 133, 170-175. 
Sictaclio'tes, 87. 

Sic'yon, 122, 193, 208. 

Si'don, 30, 60, 98, 215. 

Sino'pe, 74 , 232. 

Sir'miuni, 344, 351. 

Smer'dis, the False, 78. 
Soc'rates, 168, 183. 

Sogdia'na, 13, 204 , 205. 
Sogdia'nus, 94, 95. 

Sol'omon, 33, 38, 39, 58. 

So'lon, 29, 30, 125-127. 

So'ma, 81, 111. 

Somau'li, 76. 

So'ris, 52. 

Sosib'ius, 219. 

Sos'thenes, 224. 

Spain, 31, 38, 67, 287, 293, 307, 308, 
314, 31S, 332, 342, 343, 346, 350, 
354, 356, 357. 

Spar'ta, 29, 90, 95, 97, 107, 109, 
115, 118-123, 134-197, 225. 
Spar'tacus, 308, 309. 

Sphacte'ria, 166. 

Spho'drias, 190. 

Spithri'da'tes, 99. 

Stenycle'rus, 122. 

Stil'icho, 355, 356. 

Stolo, C. Licin'ius, 272. 
Strasbourg, 314, 351. 
Stratoni'ce, 210. 

Stry'mon, 84, 348. 

Sueto'nius, 335. 

Sue'vi, 356. 

Sul'la, L. Cornelius, 301, 304- 
308. 

Su'nimn, 270. 

Su'phis I., Shufu, 52. 

II., Nou-shufu, 52. 
Su'sa, 15, 80, 204 , 205. 

Susia'na, 15, 20, 25. 

Su'thul, 300. 

Switzerland, 9. 

Syb'aris, 131, 132. 

Sye'ne, 55, 57. 


Sy'ke, 172. 

Syr'acuse, 67, 107, 133, 170-175, 
284-291, 303, 310, 318. 

Syr'ia, 15, 20, 25, 31, 33, 58, 93, 
209-215, 218, 311, 336, 338, 339. 

T 

Ta'chos, 195, 

Tac'itus, emperor, 343. 

historian, 335. 

Tad'nior, 31. 

Takelot II., 59. 

Tan'agra, 155. 

Ta'nis, 58, 59. 

Taren'tum, Tarentines, 132, 
274 , 280, 282. 

Tarpe'ia, 250. 

Tarquin'ius, L. Priscus, 252, 

253. 

Superbus, 254. 

Tar'tarus, 112. 

Tartes'sus, 68. 

Tau'rus, 311. 

Tayge'tus, 151. 

Tege'a, Tegeans, 123, 194. 
Telem'achus, 356. 

Tel'esi'nus, 306. 

Tem'enus, 114, 115. 

Ten'edos, 14, 2>3. 

Ten'tyra, 63. 

Terentil'ius Harsa, 264. 
Teren'tius Varro, 289, 

Tet'ricus, .343. 

Teu'ta, 286. 

Teuto'nes, 302. 

Tibe'rius, 327-330. 

Tibul'lus, 328. 

Tici'nus, 288. 

Tig'lath Pile'ser I., 18, 22. 

II., 19, 41, 43. 
Tiglathi-nin, 18, 22. 

Tigra'nes, Persian general, 145. 

of Syria, 215, 233, 313. 
Tigrauocer'ta, 235. 

Ti'gris, 10, 14, 15, 18. 
Tim'esith'eus, 341. 

Timo'theus, 191. 

Tir'hakeh, 20, 59. 

Tirida'tes, 346. 

Tir'yns, 106. 

Tir'zah, 40. 

Tisag'oras, 136. 

Tissapher'nes, 95-97. 

Titho'rea, 196. 

Tit'ies, 251. 

Ti'tus, 241, 234. 

Tha'les, 126. 

Thap'sacus, 41. 


375 




Tha 


INDEX. 


Zor 


Thap'sus, 321. 

Tha'sos, 85, 107, 151, 152, 227. 
Thebes, Thebans, 97, 98, 139, 160, 
180, 188-197. 

Themis'tocles, 137-151. 
Theod'oric I., 359. 

11., 360. 

Theodo'sius, 352-354. 

1., the Great, 354, 355. 

11., 357, 358. 
Theram'enes, 181. 

Thermop'yl®, 90, 139, 196, 212, 

227. 

The'seus, 109, 124, 135. 

Thes'pise, Thespians, 91, 138, 
139. 

Thes'saloni'ca, 207, 318. 
Thes'saly, 90, 92, 105, 161, 196, 
227. 

This, 51, 53. 

Thoth, king, 51. 
deity, 64. 

Thoth'mes I., II., III., 53. 

IV., 56. 

Thrace, Thracians, 57, 83, 151, 
161, 163, 168, 230,341, 346, 348, 
350, 353, 354. 

Thrasyme'ne, 226, 22S, 288, 290. 
Thucyd'ides, 157. 

historian, 168. 

Thurii, 280, 309. 

Thyr'ea, 167. 

Tiber, 246, 249, 252, 260, 265, 272, 
322. 

Tmo'lus, 14. 

Tobi'ah, 94. 

Tol'mides, 155, 157. 

Tom'yris, 73. 

Toro'ne, 168. 

Trais, 132. 

Traja'nus, 335-337. 

Tre'bia, 288. 

Treves, 352. 

Trip'olis, 30. 

Troeze'ne, 91, 157. 

Troeze'nia, 106. 

Troy, 109, 114. 


Tsam'si, 20. 

Tul'lia, 66. 

Tul'lius, Servius, 253, 254, 260. 
Tullus Hostil'ius, 250. 

Tu'nis, 50, 66. 

Tu'rin, 348. 

Tus'culum, 267. 

Tyre, 19, 20, 26, 30-33, 60, 66, 67, 
204, 215. 

Tyrtae'us, 122. 

U 

Ulys'ses, 110. 

Um'bria, Umbrians, 246, 248, 
277-279, 282. 

U'tica, 50, 66, 294, 321. 

V 

Valens, 352, 353. 

Valentinian I., 352, 353. 

11., 354. 

111., 358, 359. 

Vad'imon, 280. 

Vale'rian, 342, 343. 

Vale'rius, the Dictator, 226, 275. 

consul, 267, 268. 

Vandals, 356-360. 

Varinius, 309. 

Varro, Terentius, 289. 

Varus, Qu., 327-328. 

Veien'tians, Veii, 262, 264 , 269, 
270, 271. 

Venetia, (Venice), 246, 359. 
Venu'sia, 278. 

Vercel'lae, 302, 303. 
Ver'cingeto'rix, 316. 

Vergi'lia, 264. 

Verona, 341, 348, 356. 

I Verres, 310. 

Verus, L., 336, 337. 

Vespasian, 332-334. 

Vesta. 257. 

Vesti'ni, 247, 304. 

, Vesu'vius, 246, 275, 276, 308 , 334. 
Vuninal Hill, 254. 


FINIS 


Virgil, 249, 328. 

Virginia, 266, 267. 

Virgin'ius, 267. 

Vi'ria'tlius, 295. 

V’isi-Goths, 353-359. 

Vitellius, 333. 

Vo'lero Publi'lius, 262, 263. 
Volsci, Volscians, 263, 264, 275, 
277, 246. 

Volsin'ii, 270. 

Volum'nia, 264. 

Vul'can, 257. 

X 

Xau'thippus, 136, 152. 

Spartan general, 28&. 
Xen'ophon, 97, 168. 

Xerxes, 88-92, 137. 

II., 94. 

Xo'is, 53, 54. 

Xoi'tes, 54. 

Y 

York, 336, 339, 347. 

Z 

Zabi'nes, 214. 

Zacyn'thus, 107, 161, 162, 226. 
Za'gros, 15, 87. 

Zaleu'cus, 132. 

Za'rna, 291. 

Zan'cle, 132. 

Zedeki'ah, 25, 26, 45, 60. 

Zeilas, 231. 

Ze'no, 361. 

Zeno'bia, 343. 

Ze'rah, 58. 

Zeus, 109-113, 123, 194, 255. 
Zidonians, 35. 

Zie'la, 320. 

Zion, 94. 

Zo'an, 5s. 

Zopy'rus, 77. 

Zo'roas'ter, 81-83. 


*»76 















































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